TEST28 READING COMPREHENSION_LSAT
section iv
time-35 minutes
27 questions
directions: each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. for some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. however, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
opponents of compulsory national service claim that such a program is not in keeping with the liberal principles upon which western democracies are founded. this reasoning is reminiscent of the argument that a tax on one's income is undemocratic because it violates one's right to property. such conceptions of the liberal state fail to take into account the intricate character of the social agreement that undergirds our liberties. it is only in the context of a community that the notion of individual rights has any application; individual rights are meant to define the limits of people's actions with respect to other people. implicit in such a context is the concept of shared sacrifice. were no taxes paid, there could be no law enforcement, and the enforcement of law is of benefit to everyone in society. thus, each of us must bear a share of the burden to ensure that the community is protected.
the responsibility to defend one's nation against outside aggression is surely no less than the responsibility to help pay for law enforcement within the nation. therefore, the state is certainly within its rights to compel citizens to perform national service when it is needed for the benefit of society.
it might be objected that the cases of taxation and national service are not analogous: while taxation must be coerced, the military is quite able to find recruits without resorting to conscription. furthermore, proponents of national service do not limit its scoped to only those duties absolutely necessary to the defense of the nation. therefore, it may be contended, compulsory national service oversteps the acceptable boundaries of governmental interference in the lives of its citizens.
by responding thus, the opponent of national service has already allowed that it is a right of government to demand service when it is needed. but what is the true scope of the tem "need" if it is granted, say, that present tax policies are legitimate intrusions on the right to property, then it must also be granted that need involves more that just what is necessary for a sound national defense. even the most conservative of politicians admits that tax money is rightly spent on programs that, while not necessary for the survival of the state, are nevertheless of great benefit to society. can the opponent of national service truly claim that activities of the military such as quelling civil disorders, rebuilding dams and bridges, or assisting he victims of natural disasters-all extraneous to the defense of society against outside aggression--do not provide a similar benefit to the nation? upon reflection, opponents of national service must concede that such a broadened conception of what is necessary is in keeping with the ideas of shared sacrifice community benefit that are essential to the functioning of a liberal democratic state.
1. which one of the following most accurately describes the author's attitude toward the relationship between citizenship and individual rights in a democracy?
(a) confidence that individual rights are citizens' most important guarantees of personal freedom
(b) satisfaction at how individual rights have protected citizens from unwarranted government intrusion
(c) alarm that so many citizens use individual rights as an excuse to take advantage of one another
(d) concern that individual rights represent citizens' only defense against government interference
(e) dissatisfaction at how some citizens cite individual rights as a way of avoiding certain obligations to their government
2. the author indicates all politicians agree about the
(a) legitimacy of funding certain programs that serve the national good
(b) use of the military to prevent domestic disorders
(c) similarity of conscription and compulsory taxation
(d) importance of broadening the definition of necessity
(e) compatibility of compulsion with democratic principles
3. which one of the following most accurately characterizes what the author means by the term "social agreement" (line 8)?
(a) an agreement among members of a community that the scope of their individual liberties is limited somewhat by their obligations to one another
(b) an agreement among members of a community that they will not act in ways that infringe upon each other's pursuit of individual liberty
>(c) an agreement among members of a community that they will petition the government for redress when government actions limit their rights.
(d) an agreement between citizens and their government detailing which government actions do or do not infringe upon citizen's personal freedoms
(e) an agreement between citizens and their government stating that the government has right to suspend individual liberties whenever it sees fit
4. according to the author, national service and taxation are analogous in the sense that both
(a) do not require that citizens be compelled to help bring them about
(b) are at odds with the notion of individual rights in a democracy]
(c) require different degrees of sacrifice from different citizens
(d) allow the government to overstep its boundaries and interfere in the lives of citizens
(e) serve ends beyond those related to the basic survival of the state
5. based on the information in the passage, which one of the following would most likely be found objectionable by those who oppose compulsory national service?
(a) the use of tax revenues to prevent the theft of national secrets by foreign agents
(b) the use of tax revenues to fund relief efforts for victims of natural disasters in other nations
(c) the use of tax revenues to support the upkeep of the nation's standing army
(d) the use of tax revenues to fund programs for the maintenance of domestic dams and bridges.
(e) the use of tax revenues to aid citizens who are victims of natural disasters
james porter (1905-1970) was the first scholar to identify the african influence on visual art in the americans, and much of what is known about the cultural legacy that african-american artists inherited from their african forebears has come to us by way of his work. porter, a painter and art historian, began by studying african-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. this research revealed that many of the household items created by african-american men and women-walling sticks, jugs, and textiles-displayed characteristics that linked them iconographically to artifacts west africa. porter then went on to establish clearly the range of the cultural territory inherited by later african-american artists.
an example of this aspect of porter's research occurs in his essay "robert s. duncanson, midwestern romantic-realist." the work of duncanson, a nineteenth-century painter of the hudson river school, like that of his predecessor in the movement, joshua johnston, was commonly thought to have been created by a euro-american artist. porter proved definitively that both duncanson and johnston were of african ancestry. porter published this finding and thousands of others in a comprehensive volume tracing the history of african-american art. at the time of its first printing in 1943, only two other books devoted exclusively to the accomplishments of african-american artists existed. both of these books were written by alain leroy locke, a professor at the university where porter also taught. while these earlier studies by locke are interesting for being the first to survey the field, neither addressed the critical issue of african precursors; porter抯 book addressed this issue, painstakingly integrating the history of african-american art into the larger history of art in the americas without separating it from those qualities that gave it this unique ties to african artisanship. porter may have been especially attuned to these ties because of his conscious effort to maintain them in his own paintings, many of which combine the style of the genre portrait with evidence of an extensive knowledge of he cultural history of various african peoples.
in his later years, porter wrote additional chapters for later editions of his book, constantly revising and correcting his findings, some of which had been based of necessity on fragmentary evidence. among his later achievements were his definitive reckoning of the birth year of the painter patrick reason, long a point of scholarly uncertainty, and his identification of an unmarked grave in san francisco as that of the sculptor edmonia lewis. at his death, porter left extensive notes for unfinished project aimed at exploring the influence of african art on the art of the western world generally, a body of research whose riches scholars still have not exhausted.
6. which one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage?
(a) because the connections between african-american art and other art in the americas had been established by earlier scholars, porter's work focused on showing african-american art's connections to african artisanship.
(b) in addition to showing the connections between african-american art and african artisanship, porter's most important achievement was illustrating the links between
african-american art and other art in americas.
(c) despite the fact that his last book remains unfinished, porter's work was the first to devote its attention exclusively to the accomplishments of african-american artists.
(d) although showing the connections between african-american art and african artisanship, porter's work concentrated primarily on placing african-american art in the context of western art in general.
(e) while not the first body of scholarship to treat the subject of african-american art, porter's work was the first to show the connections between african-american art and african artisanship.
7. the discussion of locke's books is intended primarily to
(a) argue that porte's book depended upon locke's pioneering scholarship
(b) highlight an important way in which porter's work differed from previous work in his field
(c) suggest an explanation for why porter's book was little known outside academic circles
(d) support the claim that porter was not the first to notice african influences in african-american art
(e) argue that locke's example was a major influence o porter's decision to publish his findings
8. the passage states which one of the following about the 1943 edition of porter's book on african-american art?
(a) it received little scholarly attention at first.
(b) it was revised and improved upon in later editions.
(c) it took issue with several of locke's conclusions.
(d) it is considered the definitive version of porter's work.
(e) it explored the influence of african art on western art in general.
9. given the information in the passage, porter's identification of the ancestry of duncanson and johnston provides conclusive evidence for which one of the following statements?
(a) some of the characteristics defining the hudson river school are iconographically linked to weston african artisanship.
(b) some of the works of duncanson and johnston are not in the style of the hudson river school.
(c) some of the work of euro-american painters displays similarities to african-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
(d) some of the works of the hudson river school were done by african-american painters.
(e) some of the works of duncanson and johnston were influenced by west african artifacts.
10. which one of the following can most reasonably be inferred from the passage about the study that porter left unfinished at his death?
(a) if completed, it would have contradicted some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book.
(b) if completed, it would have amended some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book.
(c) if completed, it would have brought up to date the comprehensive history of african-american art begun in his earlier book.
(d) if completed, it would have expanded upon the project of his earlier book by broadening the scope of inquiry found in the earlier book.
(e) if completed, it would have supported some of the theories put forth by porter's contemporaries since the publication of his earlier book.
11. which of the following hypothetical observations is most closely analogous to the discoveries porter made about african-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries?
(a) contemporary haitian social customs have a unique character dependent on but different from both their african and french origins.
(b) popular music in the united states, some of which is based on african musical traditions, often influences music being composed on the african continent.
(c) many novels written i canada by chinese immigrants exhibit narrative themes very similar to those found in chinese folktales.
(d) extensive indian immigration to england has made traditional indian foods nearly as popular there as the traditional english foods that had been popular there before indian immigration.
(e) some mexican muralists of the early twentieth century consciously imitated the art of native peoples as a response to the spanish influences that had predominated in mexican art.
12. the passage most strongly supports which one of the following inferences about porter's own paintings?
(a) they often contained figures or images derived from the work of african artisans.
(b) they fueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history.
(c) they were used in porter's book to show the extent of african influence on african-american art.
(d) they were a deliberate attempt to prove his theories about art history.
(e) they were done after all of his academic work had been completed.
13. based on the passage, which one of the following, if true, would have been most relevant to the project porter was working on at the time of his death?
(a) african
-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have certain resemblances to european folk crafts of earlier periods.
(b) the paintings of some twentieth-century european artists prefigured certain stylistic developments in north african graphic art.
(c) the designs of many of the quilts made by african-american women in the nineteenth century reflect designs of european trade goods.
(d) after the movement of large numbers of african-americans to cities, the african influences in the work of many african-american painters increased.
(e) several portraits by certain twentieth-century european painters were modeled after examples of central african ceremonial masks.
between june 1987 and may 1988, the bodies of at least 740 bottlenose dolphins out of a total coastal population of 3,000 to 5,000 washed ashore on the atlantic coast of the united states. since some of the dead animals never washed ashore, the overall disaster was presumably worse; perhaps 50 percent of the population died. a dolphin die-off of this character and magnitude had never before been observed; furthermore, the dolphins exhibited a startling range of symptoms. the research team that examined the die-off noted the presence of both skin lesions and internal lesions in the liver, lung, pancreas and heart, which suggested a massive opportunistic bacterial infection of already weakened animals.
tissues from the stricken dolphins were analyzed for variety of toxins. brevetoxin, a toxin produced by the blooming of the alga ptychodiscus brevis, was present in eight out of seventeen dolphins tested. tests for synthetic pollutants revealed that polychlorinated biphenyls (pcbs) were present in almost all animals tested.
the research team concluded that brevetoxin poisoning was the most likely cause of the illnesses that killed the dolphins. although p.brevis is ordinarily not found along the atlantic coast, an unusual bloom of his organism-such blooms are called "red tides" because of the reddish color imparted by the blooming algae-did occur in the middle of the affected coastline in october 1987. these researchers believe the toxin accumulated in the tissue of fish and then was ingested by dolphins that preyed on them. the emaciated appearance of many dolphins indicated that they were metabolizing their blubber reserves, thereby reducing their buoyancy and insulation (and adding to overall stress) as well as releasing stores of previously accumulated synthetic pollutants, such as pcbs, which further exacerbated their condition. the combined impact made the dolphins vulnerable to opportunistic bacterial infection, the ultimate cause of death.
for several reasons, however, this explanation is not entirely plausible. first, bottlenose dolphins and p.brevis red tides are both common in the gulf of mexico, yet no dolphin die-off of a similar magnitude has been noted there. second, dolphins began dying in june, hundreds of miles north of and some months earlier than the october red tide bloom. finally, the specific effects of brevetoxin on dolphins are unknown, whereas pcb poisoning is know to impair functioning of the immune system and liver and to cause skin lesions; all of these problems are observed in the diseased animals. an alternative hypothesis, which accounts for these facts, is that a sudden influx of pollutants, perhaps from offshore dumping, triggered a cascade of disorders in animals whose systems were already heavily laden with pollutants. although brevetoxin may have been a contributing factor, the event that actually precipitated the die-off was a sharp increase in the dolphins?exposure synthetic pollutants.
14. the passage is primarily concerned with assessing
(a) the effects of a devastating bacterial infection in atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins
(b) the progress by which illnesses in atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins were correctly diagnosed
(c) the weaknesses in the research methodology used to explore the dolphin die-off
(d) possible alternative explanations for the massive dolphin die-off
(e) relative effects of various marine pollutants on dolphin mortality
15. which one of the following is mentioned in the passage as evidence for the explanation of the dolphin die-off offered in the final paragraph?
(a) the release of stored brevetoxins from the dolphins' blubber reserves
(b) the date on which offshore dumping was known to have occurred nearby
(d) the synthetic pollutants that were present in the fish eaten by the dolphins
(e) the effects of pcbs on liver function in dolphins
16. which one of the following is most analogous to the approach taken by author of the passage with regard to the research described in the third paragraph?
(a) a physics teacher accepts the data from a student抯 experiment but questions the student抯 conclusions.
(b)
an astronomer provides additional observations to support another astronomer抯 theory.
(c) a cook revises a traditional recipe by substituting modern ingredients for those used in the original.
(d) a doctor prescribes medication for a patient whose illness was misdiagnosed by another doctor.
(e) a microbiologist sets out to replicate the experiment that yielded a classic theory of cell structure.
17, which one of the following most accurately describes, the organization of the last paragraph?
(a) one explanation is criticized and different explanation is proposed.
(b) an argument is advanced and then refuted by means of an opposing argument.
(c) objections against a hypothesis are advanced, the hypothesis is explained more fully, and then the objections are rejected.
(d) new evidence in favor of a theory is described, and then the theory is reaffirmed.
(e) discrepancies between two explanations are noted, and a third explanation is proposed.
18. it can be inferred form the passage that the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about brevetoxin?
(a) it may have been responsible for the dolphins' skin lesions but could not have contributed to the bacterial infection.
(b) it forms more easily when both p.brevis and synthetic pollutants are present in the environment simultaneously
(c) it damages liver function and immune system responses in bottlenose dolphins but may not have triggered this particular dolphin die-off.
(d) it is unlikely to be among the factors that contributed to the dolphin die-off
(e) it is unlikely to have caused the die-off because it was not present in the dolphins?environment when the die-off began.
19. the explanation for the dolphin die-off given by the research team most strongly supports which one of the following?
(a) the biological mechanism by which brevetoxin affects dolphins is probably different from that by which it affects other marine animals.
(b) when p.brevis blooms in an area where it does not usually exist, it is more toxic than it is in its usual habitat.
(c) opportunistic bacterial infection is usually associated with brevetoxin poisoning in bottlenose dolphins.
(d) the dolphins' emaciated state was probably a symptom of pcb poisoning rather than of brevetoxin poisoning.
(e) when a dolphin metabolizes its blubber, the pcbs released may be more dangerous to the dolphin than they were when stored in the blubber.
20. the author refers to dolphins in the gulf of mexico in the last paragraph in order to
(a) refute the assertion that dolphins tend not to inhabit areas where p.brevis is common
(b) compare the effects of synthetic pollutants on these dolphins and on atlantic coast dolphins.
(c) cast doubt on the belief that p.brevis contributes substantially to dolphin die-offs
(d) illustrate the fact that dolphins in relatively p.brevis contributes substantially to dolphin die-offs
(e) provide evidence for the argument that p.brevis was probably responsible for the dolphins'deaths
21. which one of the following factors is explicitly cited as contributing to the dolphins? deaths in both theories discussed in the passage?
(a) the dolphins' diet
(b) the presence of p.brevis in the gulf of mexico
(c) the wide variety of toxins released by the red tide bloom of october 1987
(d) the presence of synthetic pollutants in the dolphins' bodies
(e) the bacterial infection caused by a generalized failure of the dolphins' immune systems
in england before 1660, a husband controlled his wife's property. in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the shift from land-based to commercial wealth, marriage began to incorporate certain features of a contract historian have traditionally argued that this trend represented a gain for women, one that reflects changing views about democracy and property following the english restoration in 1660. susan staves contests this view; she argues that whatever gains marriage contracts may briefly have represented for women were undermined by judicial decisions about women's contractual rights.
sifting through the tangled details of court cases, staves demonstrates that, despite surface changes, a rhetoric of equality, and occasional decisions supporting women's financial power, definitions of men's and women's property remained inconsistent--generally to women's detriment. for example, dower lands (property inherited by wives after their husbands' deaths) could not be sold, but "curtsey "property (inherited by husbands from their wives) could be sold. furthermore, comparatively new concepts that developed i conjunction with the marriage contract, such as jointure, pin money, and separate maintenance, were compromised by peculiar rules.
for instance, if a woman spent her pin money (money paid by the husband according to the marriage contract for wife's personal items) on possessions other than clothes she could not sell them; in effect they belonged to her husband. in addition, a wife could sue for pin money only up to a year in arrears---which rendered a suit impractical. similarly, separate maintenance allowances (stated sums of money for the wife's support if husband and wife agreed to live apart) were complicated by the fact that if a couple tried to agree in a marriage contract on an amount, they were admitting that a supposedly indissoluble bond could be dissolved, an assumption courts could not recognize. eighteenth-century historians underplayed these inconsistencies, calling them "little contrarieties" that would soon vanish. staves shows, however, that as judges gained power over decisions on marriage contracts, they tended to fall back on pre-1660 assumptions about property.
staves' work on women' property has general implications for other studies about women in eighteenth-century england. staves revised her previous claim that separate maintenance allowances proved the weakening of patriarchy; she now finds that an oversimplification. she also challenges the contention by historians jeanne and lawrence stone that in the late eighteenth century wealthy men married widows less often than before because couples began marring for love rather than for financial reasons. staves does not completely undermine their contention, but she does counter their assumption that widows had more money than never-married women. she points out that jointure property (a widow's lifetime use of an amount contract) was often lost on remarriage.
22. which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(a) as notions of property and democracy changed in late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century england, marriage settlements began to incorporate contractual features designed to protect women's property rights.
(b) traditional historians have incorrectly identified the contractual features that were incorporated into marriage contracts in late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century england.
(c) the incorporation of contractual features into marriage settlements in late seventeen-and eighteenth-century england did not represent a significant gain of women.
(d) an examination of late seventeenth-and eighteenth-century english court cases indicates that most marriage settlements did not incorporate contractual features designed to protect women's property rights
(e) before marriage settlements incorporated contractual features protecting women's property rights, women were unable to gain any financial power in england.
23. which one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in the context of the passage as a whole?
(a) it suggests that staves' recent work has caused significant revision of theories about the rights of women in eighteenth-century england.
(b) it discusses research that may qualify staves' work on women's property in eighteenth-century england.
(c) it provides further support for staves' argument by describing more recent research on women's property in eighteenth-century england.
(d) it asserts that staves' recent work has provided support for two other hypotheses developed by historians of eighteenth-century england.
(e) it suggests the implications staves' recent research has for other theories about women in eighteenth-century england.
24. the primary purpose of the passage to
(a) compare two explanations for the same phenomenon
(b) summarize research that refutes an argument
(c) resolve a long-standing controversy
(d) suggest that a recent hypothesis should be reevaluated
(e) provide support for a traditional theory
25. according to the passage, staves' research has which one of the following effects on the stones' contention about marriage in late eighteenth-century england?
(a) staves' research undermines one of the stones' assumptions but does not effectively invalidate their contention.
(b) staves' research refutes that the stones' contention by providing additional data overlooked by the stones.
(c) staves' research shows that the stones' contention cannot be correct, and that a number of their assumptions are mistaken.
(d) staves' research indicates that the stones' contention is incorrect because it is based on contradictory data.
(e) staves' research qualifies the stones' contention by indicating that it is based on accurate out incomplete data.
26. according to the passage, staves indicates that which one of the following was true of judicial decisions on contractual rights?
(a) judges frequently misunderstood and misapplied laws regarding married women's property.
(b)
judges were aware of inconsistencies in laws concerning women's contractual rights but claimed that such inconsistencies would soon vanish.
(c) judges' decisions about marriage contracts tended to reflect assumptions about property that had been common before 1660.
(d) judges had little influence on the development and application of laws concerning married women's property.
(e) judges recognized the patriarchal assumptions underlying laws concerning married women's property and tried to interpret the laws in ways that would protect women.
27. the passage suggests that the historians mentioned in line 5 would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements?
(a) the shift from land-based to commercial wealth changed views about property but did not significantly benefit married women until the late eighteenth century.
(b) despite initial judicial resistance to women's contractual rights, marriage contracts represented a significant gain for married women.
(c) although marriage contracts incorporated a series of surface changes and a rhetoric of equality, they did not ultimately benefit married women.
(d) changing views about property and democracy in post-restoration england had an effect on property laws that was beneficial to women.
(e) although contractual rights protecting women's property represented a small gain for married women, most laws continued to be more beneficial for men than for women.
time-35 minutes
27 questions
directions: each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. for some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. however, you are to choose the best answer, that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
opponents of compulsory national service claim that such a program is not in keeping with the liberal principles upon which western democracies are founded. this reasoning is reminiscent of the argument that a tax on one's income is undemocratic because it violates one's right to property. such conceptions of the liberal state fail to take into account the intricate character of the social agreement that undergirds our liberties. it is only in the context of a community that the notion of individual rights has any application; individual rights are meant to define the limits of people's actions with respect to other people. implicit in such a context is the concept of shared sacrifice. were no taxes paid, there could be no law enforcement, and the enforcement of law is of benefit to everyone in society. thus, each of us must bear a share of the burden to ensure that the community is protected.
the responsibility to defend one's nation against outside aggression is surely no less than the responsibility to help pay for law enforcement within the nation. therefore, the state is certainly within its rights to compel citizens to perform national service when it is needed for the benefit of society.
it might be objected that the cases of taxation and national service are not analogous: while taxation must be coerced, the military is quite able to find recruits without resorting to conscription. furthermore, proponents of national service do not limit its scoped to only those duties absolutely necessary to the defense of the nation. therefore, it may be contended, compulsory national service oversteps the acceptable boundaries of governmental interference in the lives of its citizens.
by responding thus, the opponent of national service has already allowed that it is a right of government to demand service when it is needed. but what is the true scope of the tem "need" if it is granted, say, that present tax policies are legitimate intrusions on the right to property, then it must also be granted that need involves more that just what is necessary for a sound national defense. even the most conservative of politicians admits that tax money is rightly spent on programs that, while not necessary for the survival of the state, are nevertheless of great benefit to society. can the opponent of national service truly claim that activities of the military such as quelling civil disorders, rebuilding dams and bridges, or assisting he victims of natural disasters-all extraneous to the defense of society against outside aggression--do not provide a similar benefit to the nation? upon reflection, opponents of national service must concede that such a broadened conception of what is necessary is in keeping with the ideas of shared sacrifice community benefit that are essential to the functioning of a liberal democratic state.
1. which one of the following most accurately describes the author's attitude toward the relationship between citizenship and individual rights in a democracy?
(a) confidence that individual rights are citizens' most important guarantees of personal freedom
(b) satisfaction at how individual rights have protected citizens from unwarranted government intrusion
(c) alarm that so many citizens use individual rights as an excuse to take advantage of one another
(d) concern that individual rights represent citizens' only defense against government interference
(e) dissatisfaction at how some citizens cite individual rights as a way of avoiding certain obligations to their government
2. the author indicates all politicians agree about the
(a) legitimacy of funding certain programs that serve the national good
(b) use of the military to prevent domestic disorders
(c) similarity of conscription and compulsory taxation
(d) importance of broadening the definition of necessity
(e) compatibility of compulsion with democratic principles
3. which one of the following most accurately characterizes what the author means by the term "social agreement" (line 8)?
(a) an agreement among members of a community that the scope of their individual liberties is limited somewhat by their obligations to one another
(b) an agreement among members of a community that they will not act in ways that infringe upon each other's pursuit of individual liberty
>(c) an agreement among members of a community that they will petition the government for redress when government actions limit their rights.
(d) an agreement between citizens and their government detailing which government actions do or do not infringe upon citizen's personal freedoms
(e) an agreement between citizens and their government stating that the government has right to suspend individual liberties whenever it sees fit
4. according to the author, national service and taxation are analogous in the sense that both
(a) do not require that citizens be compelled to help bring them about
(b) are at odds with the notion of individual rights in a democracy]
(c) require different degrees of sacrifice from different citizens
(d) allow the government to overstep its boundaries and interfere in the lives of citizens
(e) serve ends beyond those related to the basic survival of the state
5. based on the information in the passage, which one of the following would most likely be found objectionable by those who oppose compulsory national service?
(a) the use of tax revenues to prevent the theft of national secrets by foreign agents
(b) the use of tax revenues to fund relief efforts for victims of natural disasters in other nations
(c) the use of tax revenues to support the upkeep of the nation's standing army
(d) the use of tax revenues to fund programs for the maintenance of domestic dams and bridges.
(e) the use of tax revenues to aid citizens who are victims of natural disasters
james porter (1905-1970) was the first scholar to identify the african influence on visual art in the americans, and much of what is known about the cultural legacy that african-american artists inherited from their african forebears has come to us by way of his work. porter, a painter and art historian, began by studying african-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. this research revealed that many of the household items created by african-american men and women-walling sticks, jugs, and textiles-displayed characteristics that linked them iconographically to artifacts west africa. porter then went on to establish clearly the range of the cultural territory inherited by later african-american artists.
an example of this aspect of porter's research occurs in his essay "robert s. duncanson, midwestern romantic-realist." the work of duncanson, a nineteenth-century painter of the hudson river school, like that of his predecessor in the movement, joshua johnston, was commonly thought to have been created by a euro-american artist. porter proved definitively that both duncanson and johnston were of african ancestry. porter published this finding and thousands of others in a comprehensive volume tracing the history of african-american art. at the time of its first printing in 1943, only two other books devoted exclusively to the accomplishments of african-american artists existed. both of these books were written by alain leroy locke, a professor at the university where porter also taught. while these earlier studies by locke are interesting for being the first to survey the field, neither addressed the critical issue of african precursors; porter抯 book addressed this issue, painstakingly integrating the history of african-american art into the larger history of art in the americas without separating it from those qualities that gave it this unique ties to african artisanship. porter may have been especially attuned to these ties because of his conscious effort to maintain them in his own paintings, many of which combine the style of the genre portrait with evidence of an extensive knowledge of he cultural history of various african peoples.
in his later years, porter wrote additional chapters for later editions of his book, constantly revising and correcting his findings, some of which had been based of necessity on fragmentary evidence. among his later achievements were his definitive reckoning of the birth year of the painter patrick reason, long a point of scholarly uncertainty, and his identification of an unmarked grave in san francisco as that of the sculptor edmonia lewis. at his death, porter left extensive notes for unfinished project aimed at exploring the influence of african art on the art of the western world generally, a body of research whose riches scholars still have not exhausted.
6. which one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage?
(a) because the connections between african-american art and other art in the americas had been established by earlier scholars, porter's work focused on showing african-american art's connections to african artisanship.
(b) in addition to showing the connections between african-american art and african artisanship, porter's most important achievement was illustrating the links between
african-american art and other art in americas.
(c) despite the fact that his last book remains unfinished, porter's work was the first to devote its attention exclusively to the accomplishments of african-american artists.
(d) although showing the connections between african-american art and african artisanship, porter's work concentrated primarily on placing african-american art in the context of western art in general.
(e) while not the first body of scholarship to treat the subject of african-american art, porter's work was the first to show the connections between african-american art and african artisanship.
7. the discussion of locke's books is intended primarily to
(a) argue that porte's book depended upon locke's pioneering scholarship
(b) highlight an important way in which porter's work differed from previous work in his field
(c) suggest an explanation for why porter's book was little known outside academic circles
(d) support the claim that porter was not the first to notice african influences in african-american art
(e) argue that locke's example was a major influence o porter's decision to publish his findings
8. the passage states which one of the following about the 1943 edition of porter's book on african-american art?
(a) it received little scholarly attention at first.
(b) it was revised and improved upon in later editions.
(c) it took issue with several of locke's conclusions.
(d) it is considered the definitive version of porter's work.
(e) it explored the influence of african art on western art in general.
9. given the information in the passage, porter's identification of the ancestry of duncanson and johnston provides conclusive evidence for which one of the following statements?
(a) some of the characteristics defining the hudson river school are iconographically linked to weston african artisanship.
(b) some of the works of duncanson and johnston are not in the style of the hudson river school.
(c) some of the work of euro-american painters displays similarities to african-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
(d) some of the works of the hudson river school were done by african-american painters.
(e) some of the works of duncanson and johnston were influenced by west african artifacts.
10. which one of the following can most reasonably be inferred from the passage about the study that porter left unfinished at his death?
(a) if completed, it would have contradicted some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book.
(b) if completed, it would have amended some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book.
(c) if completed, it would have brought up to date the comprehensive history of african-american art begun in his earlier book.
(d) if completed, it would have expanded upon the project of his earlier book by broadening the scope of inquiry found in the earlier book.
(e) if completed, it would have supported some of the theories put forth by porter's contemporaries since the publication of his earlier book.
11. which of the following hypothetical observations is most closely analogous to the discoveries porter made about african-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries?
(a) contemporary haitian social customs have a unique character dependent on but different from both their african and french origins.
(b) popular music in the united states, some of which is based on african musical traditions, often influences music being composed on the african continent.
(c) many novels written i canada by chinese immigrants exhibit narrative themes very similar to those found in chinese folktales.
(d) extensive indian immigration to england has made traditional indian foods nearly as popular there as the traditional english foods that had been popular there before indian immigration.
(e) some mexican muralists of the early twentieth century consciously imitated the art of native peoples as a response to the spanish influences that had predominated in mexican art.
12. the passage most strongly supports which one of the following inferences about porter's own paintings?
(a) they often contained figures or images derived from the work of african artisans.
(b) they fueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history.
(c) they were used in porter's book to show the extent of african influence on african-american art.
(d) they were a deliberate attempt to prove his theories about art history.
(e) they were done after all of his academic work had been completed.
13. based on the passage, which one of the following, if true, would have been most relevant to the project porter was working on at the time of his death?
(a) african
-american crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have certain resemblances to european folk crafts of earlier periods.
(b) the paintings of some twentieth-century european artists prefigured certain stylistic developments in north african graphic art.
(c) the designs of many of the quilts made by african-american women in the nineteenth century reflect designs of european trade goods.
(d) after the movement of large numbers of african-americans to cities, the african influences in the work of many african-american painters increased.
(e) several portraits by certain twentieth-century european painters were modeled after examples of central african ceremonial masks.
between june 1987 and may 1988, the bodies of at least 740 bottlenose dolphins out of a total coastal population of 3,000 to 5,000 washed ashore on the atlantic coast of the united states. since some of the dead animals never washed ashore, the overall disaster was presumably worse; perhaps 50 percent of the population died. a dolphin die-off of this character and magnitude had never before been observed; furthermore, the dolphins exhibited a startling range of symptoms. the research team that examined the die-off noted the presence of both skin lesions and internal lesions in the liver, lung, pancreas and heart, which suggested a massive opportunistic bacterial infection of already weakened animals.
tissues from the stricken dolphins were analyzed for variety of toxins. brevetoxin, a toxin produced by the blooming of the alga ptychodiscus brevis, was present in eight out of seventeen dolphins tested. tests for synthetic pollutants revealed that polychlorinated biphenyls (pcbs) were present in almost all animals tested.
the research team concluded that brevetoxin poisoning was the most likely cause of the illnesses that killed the dolphins. although p.brevis is ordinarily not found along the atlantic coast, an unusual bloom of his organism-such blooms are called "red tides" because of the reddish color imparted by the blooming algae-did occur in the middle of the affected coastline in october 1987. these researchers believe the toxin accumulated in the tissue of fish and then was ingested by dolphins that preyed on them. the emaciated appearance of many dolphins indicated that they were metabolizing their blubber reserves, thereby reducing their buoyancy and insulation (and adding to overall stress) as well as releasing stores of previously accumulated synthetic pollutants, such as pcbs, which further exacerbated their condition. the combined impact made the dolphins vulnerable to opportunistic bacterial infection, the ultimate cause of death.
for several reasons, however, this explanation is not entirely plausible. first, bottlenose dolphins and p.brevis red tides are both common in the gulf of mexico, yet no dolphin die-off of a similar magnitude has been noted there. second, dolphins began dying in june, hundreds of miles north of and some months earlier than the october red tide bloom. finally, the specific effects of brevetoxin on dolphins are unknown, whereas pcb poisoning is know to impair functioning of the immune system and liver and to cause skin lesions; all of these problems are observed in the diseased animals. an alternative hypothesis, which accounts for these facts, is that a sudden influx of pollutants, perhaps from offshore dumping, triggered a cascade of disorders in animals whose systems were already heavily laden with pollutants. although brevetoxin may have been a contributing factor, the event that actually precipitated the die-off was a sharp increase in the dolphins?exposure synthetic pollutants.
14. the passage is primarily concerned with assessing
(a) the effects of a devastating bacterial infection in atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins
(b) the progress by which illnesses in atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins were correctly diagnosed
(c) the weaknesses in the research methodology used to explore the dolphin die-off
(d) possible alternative explanations for the massive dolphin die-off
(e) relative effects of various marine pollutants on dolphin mortality
15. which one of the following is mentioned in the passage as evidence for the explanation of the dolphin die-off offered in the final paragraph?
(a) the release of stored brevetoxins from the dolphins' blubber reserves
(b) the date on which offshore dumping was known to have occurred nearby
(d) the synthetic pollutants that were present in the fish eaten by the dolphins
(e) the effects of pcbs on liver function in dolphins
16. which one of the following is most analogous to the approach taken by author of the passage with regard to the research described in the third paragraph?
(a) a physics teacher accepts the data from a student抯 experiment but questions the student抯 conclusions.
(b)
an astronomer provides additional observations to support another astronomer抯 theory.
(c) a cook revises a traditional recipe by substituting modern ingredients for those used in the original.
(d) a doctor prescribes medication for a patient whose illness was misdiagnosed by another doctor.
(e) a microbiologist sets out to replicate the experiment that yielded a classic theory of cell structure.
17, which one of the following most accurately describes, the organization of the last paragraph?
(a) one explanation is criticized and different explanation is proposed.
(b) an argument is advanced and then refuted by means of an opposing argument.
(c) objections against a hypothesis are advanced, the hypothesis is explained more fully, and then the objections are rejected.
(d) new evidence in favor of a theory is described, and then the theory is reaffirmed.
(e) discrepancies between two explanations are noted, and a third explanation is proposed.
18. it can be inferred form the passage that the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about brevetoxin?
(a) it may have been responsible for the dolphins' skin lesions but could not have contributed to the bacterial infection.
(b) it forms more easily when both p.brevis and synthetic pollutants are present in the environment simultaneously
(c) it damages liver function and immune system responses in bottlenose dolphins but may not have triggered this particular dolphin die-off.
(d) it is unlikely to be among the factors that contributed to the dolphin die-off
(e) it is unlikely to have caused the die-off because it was not present in the dolphins?environment when the die-off began.
19. the explanation for the dolphin die-off given by the research team most strongly supports which one of the following?
(a) the biological mechanism by which brevetoxin affects dolphins is probably different from that by which it affects other marine animals.
(b) when p.brevis blooms in an area where it does not usually exist, it is more toxic than it is in its usual habitat.
(c) opportunistic bacterial infection is usually associated with brevetoxin poisoning in bottlenose dolphins.
(d) the dolphins' emaciated state was probably a symptom of pcb poisoning rather than of brevetoxin poisoning.
(e) when a dolphin metabolizes its blubber, the pcbs released may be more dangerous to the dolphin than they were when stored in the blubber.
20. the author refers to dolphins in the gulf of mexico in the last paragraph in order to
(a) refute the assertion that dolphins tend not to inhabit areas where p.brevis is common
(b) compare the effects of synthetic pollutants on these dolphins and on atlantic coast dolphins.
(c) cast doubt on the belief that p.brevis contributes substantially to dolphin die-offs
(d) illustrate the fact that dolphins in relatively p.brevis contributes substantially to dolphin die-offs
(e) provide evidence for the argument that p.brevis was probably responsible for the dolphins'deaths
21. which one of the following factors is explicitly cited as contributing to the dolphins? deaths in both theories discussed in the passage?
(a) the dolphins' diet
(b) the presence of p.brevis in the gulf of mexico
(c) the wide variety of toxins released by the red tide bloom of october 1987
(d) the presence of synthetic pollutants in the dolphins' bodies
(e) the bacterial infection caused by a generalized failure of the dolphins' immune systems
in england before 1660, a husband controlled his wife's property. in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the shift from land-based to commercial wealth, marriage began to incorporate certain features of a contract historian have traditionally argued that this trend represented a gain for women, one that reflects changing views about democracy and property following the english restoration in 1660. susan staves contests this view; she argues that whatever gains marriage contracts may briefly have represented for women were undermined by judicial decisions about women's contractual rights.
sifting through the tangled details of court cases, staves demonstrates that, despite surface changes, a rhetoric of equality, and occasional decisions supporting women's financial power, definitions of men's and women's property remained inconsistent--generally to women's detriment. for example, dower lands (property inherited by wives after their husbands' deaths) could not be sold, but "curtsey "property (inherited by husbands from their wives) could be sold. furthermore, comparatively new concepts that developed i conjunction with the marriage contract, such as jointure, pin money, and separate maintenance, were compromised by peculiar rules.
for instance, if a woman spent her pin money (money paid by the husband according to the marriage contract for wife's personal items) on possessions other than clothes she could not sell them; in effect they belonged to her husband. in addition, a wife could sue for pin money only up to a year in arrears---which rendered a suit impractical. similarly, separate maintenance allowances (stated sums of money for the wife's support if husband and wife agreed to live apart) were complicated by the fact that if a couple tried to agree in a marriage contract on an amount, they were admitting that a supposedly indissoluble bond could be dissolved, an assumption courts could not recognize. eighteenth-century historians underplayed these inconsistencies, calling them "little contrarieties" that would soon vanish. staves shows, however, that as judges gained power over decisions on marriage contracts, they tended to fall back on pre-1660 assumptions about property.
staves' work on women' property has general implications for other studies about women in eighteenth-century england. staves revised her previous claim that separate maintenance allowances proved the weakening of patriarchy; she now finds that an oversimplification. she also challenges the contention by historians jeanne and lawrence stone that in the late eighteenth century wealthy men married widows less often than before because couples began marring for love rather than for financial reasons. staves does not completely undermine their contention, but she does counter their assumption that widows had more money than never-married women. she points out that jointure property (a widow's lifetime use of an amount contract) was often lost on remarriage.
22. which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(a) as notions of property and democracy changed in late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century england, marriage settlements began to incorporate contractual features designed to protect women's property rights.
(b) traditional historians have incorrectly identified the contractual features that were incorporated into marriage contracts in late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century england.
(c) the incorporation of contractual features into marriage settlements in late seventeen-and eighteenth-century england did not represent a significant gain of women.
(d) an examination of late seventeenth-and eighteenth-century english court cases indicates that most marriage settlements did not incorporate contractual features designed to protect women's property rights
(e) before marriage settlements incorporated contractual features protecting women's property rights, women were unable to gain any financial power in england.
23. which one of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in the context of the passage as a whole?
(a) it suggests that staves' recent work has caused significant revision of theories about the rights of women in eighteenth-century england.
(b) it discusses research that may qualify staves' work on women's property in eighteenth-century england.
(c) it provides further support for staves' argument by describing more recent research on women's property in eighteenth-century england.
(d) it asserts that staves' recent work has provided support for two other hypotheses developed by historians of eighteenth-century england.
(e) it suggests the implications staves' recent research has for other theories about women in eighteenth-century england.
24. the primary purpose of the passage to
(a) compare two explanations for the same phenomenon
(b) summarize research that refutes an argument
(c) resolve a long-standing controversy
(d) suggest that a recent hypothesis should be reevaluated
(e) provide support for a traditional theory
25. according to the passage, staves' research has which one of the following effects on the stones' contention about marriage in late eighteenth-century england?
(a) staves' research undermines one of the stones' assumptions but does not effectively invalidate their contention.
(b) staves' research refutes that the stones' contention by providing additional data overlooked by the stones.
(c) staves' research shows that the stones' contention cannot be correct, and that a number of their assumptions are mistaken.
(d) staves' research indicates that the stones' contention is incorrect because it is based on contradictory data.
(e) staves' research qualifies the stones' contention by indicating that it is based on accurate out incomplete data.
26. according to the passage, staves indicates that which one of the following was true of judicial decisions on contractual rights?
(a) judges frequently misunderstood and misapplied laws regarding married women's property.
(b)
judges were aware of inconsistencies in laws concerning women's contractual rights but claimed that such inconsistencies would soon vanish.
(c) judges' decisions about marriage contracts tended to reflect assumptions about property that had been common before 1660.
(d) judges had little influence on the development and application of laws concerning married women's property.
(e) judges recognized the patriarchal assumptions underlying laws concerning married women's property and tried to interpret the laws in ways that would protect women.
27. the passage suggests that the historians mentioned in line 5 would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements?
(a) the shift from land-based to commercial wealth changed views about property but did not significantly benefit married women until the late eighteenth century.
(b) despite initial judicial resistance to women's contractual rights, marriage contracts represented a significant gain for married women.
(c) although marriage contracts incorporated a series of surface changes and a rhetoric of equality, they did not ultimately benefit married women.
(d) changing views about property and democracy in post-restoration england had an effect on property laws that was beneficial to women.
(e) although contractual rights protecting women's property represented a small gain for married women, most laws continued to be more beneficial for men than for women.
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