TEST26 CRITICAL REASONING 2_LSAT
section Ⅲ
time-35 minutes
25 questions
directions: the questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. for some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. however, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. you should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. after you have chosen the best answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
1. question withheld from scoring.
2. owners of deeply indebted and chronically unprofitable small businesses sometimes try to convince others to invest money in their companies. since the money thus acquired will inevitably be used to pay off debts, rather than to expand operation, this money will not stimulate sales growth in such companies. thus, most people are reluctant to make these investments. surprisingly, however, such investments often earn handsome returns in the very first year they are made.
which one of the following, if true most helps to explain the surprising results of such investments?
(a) investors usually choose to reinvest their returns on such investments.
(b) expanding production in such companies would usually require more funds than would paying off debts.
(c) paying off debts, by saving a company the money it would otherwise owe in interest, decreases the company’s overall expenses and thereby increases its profits.
(d) banks are reluctant to lend money to any company that is already heavily in debt and chronically unprofitable.
(e) if the sales of a company do not grow, there is usually little need to devote a large share of company resources to expanding production.
3. after purchasing a pot-bellied pig at the pet store in springfield, amy was informed by a springfield city official that she would not be allowed to keep the pig as a pet, since city codes classify pigs as livestock, and individuals may not keep livestock in springfield.
the city official’s argument depends on assuming which one of the following?
(a) amy lives in springfield.
(b) pigs are not classified as pets in springfield.
(c) any animal not classified as livestock may be kept in springfield.
(d) dogs and cats are not classified as livestock in springfield.
(e) it is legal for pet stores to sell pigs in springfield.
4. historian: the central claim of the “end-of-history” theory is that history has reached its final stage of development. according to its adherents, democratic ideals have triumphed over their rivals, and history is effectively at an ideological end. but, this view fails to consider that it is impossible to stand outside all of history to judged whether history is really at an end.
which one of the following can be most reasonably inferred from the historian’s statements?
(a) we can never know whether the end-of-history theory is true.
(b) advocates of the end-of-history theory have too ideological an understanding of history.
(c) if we were at the end of history, we would automatically know whether the end-of-history theory is true.
(d) it is impossible for the end-of-history theory to be true.
(e) ideological developments are the essential elements of history.
5. john: as i was driving to work this morning. i was stopped by a police officer and ticketed for speeding. since there were many other cars around me that were going as fast as i was, the police officer clearly treated me unfairly.
mary: you were not treated unfairly, since the police officer was obviously unable to stop all the drivers who were speeding. everyone who was speeding at that time and place had an equal chance of being stopped.
which one of the following principles, if established, would most help to justify mary’s position?
(a) if all those who violate a traffic law on a particular occasion are equally likely to be penalized for violating it, then the law is fairly applied to whoever among them is then penalized.
(b) the penalties attached to traffic laws should be applied not as punishments for breaking the law but rather as deterrents to unsafe driving.
(c) the penalties attached to traffic laws should be imposed on all people who violate those laws, and only those people.
(d) it is fairer not to enforce a traffic law at all that it is to enforce it in some, but not all, of the cases to which it applies.
(e) fairness in the application of a traffic law is ensured not by all violator’s having an equal chance of being penalized for their violation of the law, but rather by penalizing all known violators to the same extent.⨪
6. a purse co
ntaining 32 ancient gold coins that had been minted in morocco was discovered in the ruins of an ancient jordanian city some 4,000 kilometers to the east of morocco. in its time the jordanian city was an important trading center along the trade route linking china and europe, and it was also a popular stopover for pilgrims on the route between morocco and mecca. the purse of a trader in the city would probably have contained a more diverse set of coins.
the statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following hypotheses?
(a) moroccan coins were valuable in the ancient city than were jordanian coins.
(b) most gold coins available during the time when the ancient city thrived were minted in morocco.
(c) the purse with the gold coins had been brought to the ancient city by a pilgrim on the route between morocco and mecca.
(d) gold coins were the only medium of exchange used in the ancient city.
(e) pilgrims and traders in the ancient city were unlikely to have interacted with one another.
7. studies indicate that the rate at which water pollution is increasing is leveling off, the amount of water pollution causes this year is almost identical to the amount caused last year. if this trend continues, the water pollution problem will no longer be getting more serious.
the reasoning is questionable because it ignores the possibility that
(a) some types of water pollution have no noticeable effect on organisms that use the water
(b) the types of water pollution caused this year are less dangerous than those caused last year
(c) the leveling-off trend of water pollution will not continue
(d) air and soil pollution are becoming more serious
(e) the effects of water pollution are cumulative
8. one researchers writes, “human beings are innately aggressive”. as evidence, the researcher cites the prevalence of warfare in history and then discounts any current disinclination to fight: “but if some peoples are peaceable now, then aggression itself cannot be coded in our genes, only the potential for it. if “innate” only in means possible, or even likely in certain environment, then everything we do is innate and the word has no meaning.
which one of the following most accurately describes the technique used in the passage to weaken the argument for the claim that aggressiveness is innate to human beings?
(a) the accuracy of the historical data cited in the argument for innate aggressiveness is called into question.
(b) the force of the concept of innateness used in the argument for innate aggressiveness is called into question.
(c) an attempt is made to undermine the argument for innate aggressiveness by arguing that there are no genetically based traits.
(d) an attempt is made to undermine the argument for innate aggressiveness by suggesting that it appeals to emotional considerations rather than to reason.
(e) an attempt is made to undermine the argument for innate aggressiveness by arguing that all peoples are peaceable.
question9-10
if a person chooses to walk rather than drive, there is one less vehicle emitting pollution into the air than there would be otherwise. therefore if people would walk whenever it is feasible for them to do so, then pollution will be greatly reduced.
9. which one of the following is an assumption on what the argument depends?
(a) cutting down on pollution can be achieved in a variety of ways.
(b) taking public transportation rather than driving is not always feasible.
(c) walking is the only feasible alternative to driving that results in a reduction in pollution.
(d) there are people who never drive but who prefer walk.
(e) people sometimes drive when it is feasible to walk instead.
10. which one of the following, if true, most strengthen the argument?
(a) if automobile passengers who never drive walk instead of ride, there will be fewer vehicles on the road as a result.
(b) nonmoving running vehicles, on average, emit half as much pollution per second as moving vehicles, but the greater congestion is , the more nonmoving running vehicles there are.
(c) since different vehicles can pollute at different rates, it is possible for one drive who walks to make a greater contribution to pollution prevention than another driver who walks.
(d) on average, buses pollute more than cars do, but buses usually carry more passengers than cars do.
(e) those who previously rode as passengers in a vehicle whose driver decides to walk instead of drive might themselves decide to drive.
11. editorial: the most vocal proponents of the proposed law are not permanent residents of this island but rather a few of the wealthiest summer residents, who leave when the vacation months have passed. these people will benefit
from passage of this law wile not having to deal with the problems associated with its adoption. therefore, anyone who supports the proposed law is serving only the interests of a few outsiders at the cost of creating problems for the island’s permanent residents.
which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
(a) the average income of the island’s summer residents is greater than the average income of its permanent residents.
(b) the problems associated with this law outweigh any benefit it might provide the island’s permanent residents.
(c) most of the island’s summer residents would benefit from passage of this law.
(d) most of the island’s summer residents support passage of this law.
(e) most of the island’s permanent residents oppose passage of this law.
12. vitamin xyz has long been a favorite among health food enthusiasts. in a recent large study, those who took large amounts of vitamin xyz daily for two years showed on average a 40 percent lower risk of heart disease than did members of a control groups. researchers corrected for differences in relevant health habits, such as diet.
which one of the following inference is most supported by the passage?
(a) taking large amount of vitamins is probably worth risking the side effects.
(b) those who take large doses of vitamin xyz daily for the next two years will exhibit on average an increase in the likelihood of avoiding heart disease.
(c) li who has taken large amounts of vitamin xyz daily for the past two years, has a 40 percent lower risk
(d) taking large amounts of vitamin xyz daily over the course of one’s adult life should be recommended to most adults.
(e) health food enthusiasts are probably correct in believing that large daily doses of multiple vitamin promote good health.
13. in 1988, a significant percentage of seals n the baltic sea died from viral disease: off the coast of scotland, however, the death rate due to viral diseases was approximately half what it was fort e baltic seals. the baltic seals and significantly higher levels of pollutants in their blood than did the scottish seals. since pollutants are known to impair marine mammal’s ability to fight off viral infection, it is likely that the higher death rate among the baltic seals was due to the higher levels of pollutants in their blood.
which one of the following, if true, provides the most additional support for the argument?
(a) the large majority of scottish seals that died were either old or unhealthy animals.
(b) the stain of virus impaired immune systems much more quickly than it does healthy immune systems.
(c) there were slight fluctuations in the levels of pollutants found in the blood of baltic sea.
(d) the kinds of pollutants found in the baltic sea are significantly different from those that have been detected in the waters off the coast of scotland.
(e) among marine mammals other than seals, the death rate due to viral diseases in 1988 was higher in the baltic sea than it was off the scottish coast.
14. if the proposed tax reduction package s adopted this year, the library will be forced to discontinue its daily story hours for children. but if the daily story hours are discontinued, many parents will be greatly inconvenienced. so the proposed tax reduction package will be adopted this year.
which one of the following, if assumed, allows the argument’s conclusion to be properly drawn?
(a) any tax reduction package that will not force the library to discontinue daily story hours will be adopted this year.
(b) every tax reduction package that would force the library to discontinue daily story hours would greatly inconvenience parents.
(c) no tax reduction package that would greatly inconvenience parents would fail to force the library to discontinue daily story hours.
(d) no tax reduction package that would greatly inconvenience parents will be adopted this year.
(e) any tax reduction package that will not greatly inconvenience parents will be adopted this year.
15. funding opponent: some people favor city funding for the spaying and neutering of pets at the owners request. they claims that the decrease in the number of stray animals to contend with will offset the costs of the funding. these people fail to realize that over 80 percent of pet owners already pay to spay or neuter their animals, so there will not be a significant decrease in the number of stray animals in the city if funding is provided.
each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument of the funding opponent except:
(a) very few of the stray animals in the city are offspring of pets.
(b) many pet owners would have their animals spayed or neutered sooner if funding were provided by the city.
(c) the only way the nu
mber of tray animals can decrease is if existing strays are spayed or neutered.
(d) most people owners who do not have their pets spayed or neutered believed that spaying and neutering are morally wrong.
(e) the majority of pets that are not spayed or neutered are used for breeding purposes, and are not likely to produce stray animals.
16. research indicates that college professors generally were raised in economically advantaged households. for it was discovered that, overall college professors grew up in communities with average household incomes that were higher than the average household income for the nation as a whole.
the reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument:
(a) inappropriately assumes a correlation between household income and economic advantage
(b) fails to note there are some communities with high average household incomes in which no college professors grew up
(c) presumes without justification that college professors generally were raised in households with incomes that are average or above average for their communities
(d) dose not take into account the fact that college professors generally have lower salaries than their counterparts in the private sector
(e) fails to take into account the fact that many college professors live in rural communities which generally have low average household incomes .
17. magazine article: punishment for crimes is justified if it actually deters people from committing them. but a great deal of carefully assembled and analyzed empirical data show clearly that punishment is not a deterrent. so punishment is never justified.
the reasoning in the magazine article’s argument is flawed because the argument
(a) depends on data that there is reason to suspect may be biased
(b) mistakenly allows the key term “punishment” to shift in meaning
(c) mistakes being sufficient to justify punishment for being required to justify it
(d) ignores the problem of mistakenly punishing the innocent
(e) attempts to be more precise than its subject matter properly allows
18. if the reasoning now playing on the jazz program is really “ louis armstrong recorded in concert in 1989.” as the announcer said, then louis armstrong was playing some of the best jazz of his career years after his death. since the trumpeter was definitely louis armstrong, somehow the announcer must have gotten the date of the recording wrong.
the patter of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments?
(a) the museum is reported as having acquired a painting “ by malvtna hoffman, an artist who died in 1966”. but hoffman was sculptor, not a painter, so the report must be wrong about the acquisition being a painting.
(b) this painting titled la toilette is berthe morisot’s la toilette only if a painting can be in two museums at the same time. since nothing can be in two places at once, this painting must somehow have been mistitled.
(c) only if a twentieth-century mexican artist painted in japan during the seventeenth century can this work both be “by frida kahlo” as labeled and the seventeenth century japanese landscape it appears to be. since it is what it appears to be, the label is wrong.
(d) unless kathe kollwitz was both a sculptor and a printmaker, the volunteer museum guide is wrong in his attribution of this sculpture. since what kollwitz is known for is her prints, the guide must be wrong.
(e) if this painting is a portrait done in acrylic, it cannot be by elisabeth vigger-lebrun, since acrylic paint was developed only after her death. thus, since it is definitely a portrait, the paint must not be acrylic.
19. when a stone is trimmed by a mason and exposed to the elements, a coating of a clay and other minerals, called rock varnish gradually accumulates on the freshly trimmed surface. organic matter trapped beneath the varnish on stones of an andean monument was found to be over 1000 years old. since the organic matter must have grown on the stone shortly after it was trimmed, it follows that the monument was built long before the arrival of europeans in the americas in 1492.
which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
(a) rock varnish itself contains some organic matter.
(b) the reuse of ancient trimmed stones was common in the andes both before and after 1492.
(c) the andean monument bears striking resemblance to monuments found in ancient sites in western asia.
(d) the earliest written reference to the andean monuments dates from 1778.
(e) rock varnish forms very slowly, if at all, on trimmed stones that stored in a dry, sheltered place.
20. legal rules are expressed in general terms. the concern classification of persons and actions and they prescribe legal cons
equences for persons and actions falling into the relevant categories. the application of a rule to a particular case, therefore, involves a decision on whether the facts of that case fall within the categories mentioned in the rule. this decision establishes the legal effect of what happened rather than any matter of fact.
the passage provides the most support for which one of the following?
(a) legal rules, like matters of fact, are concerned with classifications of things such as actions.
(b) matters of fact, like legal rules, can sometimes be expressed in general terms.
(c) making a legal decision does not involve matters of fact.
(d) the application of a rule to a particular case need not be left to a judge.
(e) whether the facts of a case fall into a relevant category is not itself a matter of fact.
questions 21—22
helen: it was wrong of my brother mark to tell our mother that the reason he had missed her birthday party the evening before was that he had been in a traffic accident and that by the time he was released from the hospital emergency room the party was log over. saying something that is false can never be other than morally wrong, and there had been no such accident—mark had simply forgotten all about the party.
21. the main conclusion drawn in helen’s argument is that
(a) mark did not tell his mother the truth
(b) the real reason mark missed his mother’s birthday party was that he had forgotten all about it.
(c) it is wrong to attempt to avoid blame for one’s failure to do something by claiming that one was prevented from doing that thing by events outside one’s control
(d) it was wrong of mark to tell his mother that he had missed her birthday party as a result of having been in a traffic accident
(e) it is always wrong not to tell the truth .
22. the justification helen offers for her judgment of mark’s behavior is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the justification
(a) ignores an important moral distinction between saying something that is false and failing to say something that one knows to be true
(b) confuses having identified one cause of a given effect with having eliminated the possibility of there being any other causes of that effect
(c) judges behavior that is outside an individual’s control according to moral standards that can properly be applied only to behavior that is within such control
(d) relies on an illegitimate appeal to pity to obscure the fact that the conclusion does not logically follow from the premises advanced
(e) attempts to justify a judgement about a particular case by citing a general principle that stands in far greater need of support than does the particular judgment.
23. candidate: the government spends $500 million more each year promoting highway safety than it spends combating cigarette smoking. but each year many more people die from smoking-related diseases than die in highway accidents. so the government would save lives by shifting funds from highway safety programs to antismoking programs.
the flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the candidate’s argument?
(a) the government enforces the speed limit on freeways much more closely than on tollways. but many more people die each year in auto accidents on freeways than die in auto accidents on tollways. so the government would save lives by shifting funds from enforcement of speed limits on freeways to enforcement of speed limits on tollways.
(b) a certain professional musician spends several times as many hours practicing guitar as she spends practicing saxophone. but she is hired much more often to play saxophone than to play guitar, so she would increase her number of playing engagements by spending less time practicing guitar and more time practicing saxophone.
(c) automobiles burn more gas per minute on highways than residential streets. but they get fewer miles per gallon on residential streets. therefore, gas would be saved by driving less on residential streets and more on highways.
(d) the local swim team spends many more hours practicing the backstroke than it spends practicing the breaststroke. nut the team’s lap times for the breaststroke are much better than its times for the backstroke, so the team would win more swim meets if it spent less time practicing the backstroke and more time practicing the breaststroke.
(e) banks have a higher profit margin on loans that have a high interest rate than on loans that have a low interest rate. but borrowers are willing to borrow larger sums at low rates than at high rates. therefore, banks would be more profitable if they gave more loans on low rates and fewer loans at high rates.
24. a person’s failure to keep a promise is wrong only if, first,
doing so harms the one to whom the promise is made and, second, all of those who discover the failure to keep the promise lose confidence in the person’s ability to keep promises.
which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above?
(a) ann kept her promise to repay felicia the money she owned her. further, this convinced everyone who knew ann that she is trustworthy. thus, ann’s keeping her promise was not wrong.
(b) jonathan took an oath of secrecy concerning the corporation’s technical secrets, but he sold them to a competitor. his action was wrong even though the corporation intended that he leak these secretes to its competitors.
(c) george promised to repay reiko the money he owed her. however, george was unable to keep his promise to reiko and as a result, reiko suffered a serious financial loss. thus, george’s failure to keep his promise was wrong.
(d) because he lost his job, carlo was unable to repay the money he promise to miriam. however, miriam did not need this money nor did she lose confidence in carlo’s ability to keep promises. so, carlo’s failure to keep his promise to miriam was not wrong.
(e) elizabeth promised to return the book she borrowed from steven within a week. but she was unable to do so because she became acutely ill. not knowing this, steven lost confidence in her ability to keep a promise. so, elizabeth’s failure to return the book to steven was wrong.
25. the end of an action is the intended outcome of the action and not a mere by-product of the action, and the end’s value is thus the only reason for the action. so while it is true that not every end’s value will justify any means, and even, perhaps, that there is no end whose value will justify every means, it is clear that nothing will justify a mans except an end’s value.
which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?
(a) the value o some ends may justify any means.
(b) one can always justify a given action by appeal to the value of its intended out come.
(c) one can justify an action only by appeal to the value of its intended outcome.
(d) only the value o the by-products of an action can justify that action.
(e) nothing can justify the intended outcome of an action except the value of that action’s actual outcomes.
time-35 minutes
25 questions
directions: the questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. for some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. however, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. you should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. after you have chosen the best answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
1. question withheld from scoring.
2. owners of deeply indebted and chronically unprofitable small businesses sometimes try to convince others to invest money in their companies. since the money thus acquired will inevitably be used to pay off debts, rather than to expand operation, this money will not stimulate sales growth in such companies. thus, most people are reluctant to make these investments. surprisingly, however, such investments often earn handsome returns in the very first year they are made.
which one of the following, if true most helps to explain the surprising results of such investments?
(a) investors usually choose to reinvest their returns on such investments.
(b) expanding production in such companies would usually require more funds than would paying off debts.
(c) paying off debts, by saving a company the money it would otherwise owe in interest, decreases the company’s overall expenses and thereby increases its profits.
(d) banks are reluctant to lend money to any company that is already heavily in debt and chronically unprofitable.
(e) if the sales of a company do not grow, there is usually little need to devote a large share of company resources to expanding production.
3. after purchasing a pot-bellied pig at the pet store in springfield, amy was informed by a springfield city official that she would not be allowed to keep the pig as a pet, since city codes classify pigs as livestock, and individuals may not keep livestock in springfield.
the city official’s argument depends on assuming which one of the following?
(a) amy lives in springfield.
(b) pigs are not classified as pets in springfield.
(c) any animal not classified as livestock may be kept in springfield.
(d) dogs and cats are not classified as livestock in springfield.
(e) it is legal for pet stores to sell pigs in springfield.
4. historian: the central claim of the “end-of-history” theory is that history has reached its final stage of development. according to its adherents, democratic ideals have triumphed over their rivals, and history is effectively at an ideological end. but, this view fails to consider that it is impossible to stand outside all of history to judged whether history is really at an end.
which one of the following can be most reasonably inferred from the historian’s statements?
(a) we can never know whether the end-of-history theory is true.
(b) advocates of the end-of-history theory have too ideological an understanding of history.
(c) if we were at the end of history, we would automatically know whether the end-of-history theory is true.
(d) it is impossible for the end-of-history theory to be true.
(e) ideological developments are the essential elements of history.
5. john: as i was driving to work this morning. i was stopped by a police officer and ticketed for speeding. since there were many other cars around me that were going as fast as i was, the police officer clearly treated me unfairly.
mary: you were not treated unfairly, since the police officer was obviously unable to stop all the drivers who were speeding. everyone who was speeding at that time and place had an equal chance of being stopped.
which one of the following principles, if established, would most help to justify mary’s position?
(a) if all those who violate a traffic law on a particular occasion are equally likely to be penalized for violating it, then the law is fairly applied to whoever among them is then penalized.
(b) the penalties attached to traffic laws should be applied not as punishments for breaking the law but rather as deterrents to unsafe driving.
(c) the penalties attached to traffic laws should be imposed on all people who violate those laws, and only those people.
(d) it is fairer not to enforce a traffic law at all that it is to enforce it in some, but not all, of the cases to which it applies.
(e) fairness in the application of a traffic law is ensured not by all violator’s having an equal chance of being penalized for their violation of the law, but rather by penalizing all known violators to the same extent.⨪
6. a purse co
ntaining 32 ancient gold coins that had been minted in morocco was discovered in the ruins of an ancient jordanian city some 4,000 kilometers to the east of morocco. in its time the jordanian city was an important trading center along the trade route linking china and europe, and it was also a popular stopover for pilgrims on the route between morocco and mecca. the purse of a trader in the city would probably have contained a more diverse set of coins.
the statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following hypotheses?
(a) moroccan coins were valuable in the ancient city than were jordanian coins.
(b) most gold coins available during the time when the ancient city thrived were minted in morocco.
(c) the purse with the gold coins had been brought to the ancient city by a pilgrim on the route between morocco and mecca.
(d) gold coins were the only medium of exchange used in the ancient city.
(e) pilgrims and traders in the ancient city were unlikely to have interacted with one another.
7. studies indicate that the rate at which water pollution is increasing is leveling off, the amount of water pollution causes this year is almost identical to the amount caused last year. if this trend continues, the water pollution problem will no longer be getting more serious.
the reasoning is questionable because it ignores the possibility that
(a) some types of water pollution have no noticeable effect on organisms that use the water
(b) the types of water pollution caused this year are less dangerous than those caused last year
(c) the leveling-off trend of water pollution will not continue
(d) air and soil pollution are becoming more serious
(e) the effects of water pollution are cumulative
8. one researchers writes, “human beings are innately aggressive”. as evidence, the researcher cites the prevalence of warfare in history and then discounts any current disinclination to fight: “but if some peoples are peaceable now, then aggression itself cannot be coded in our genes, only the potential for it. if “innate” only in means possible, or even likely in certain environment, then everything we do is innate and the word has no meaning.
which one of the following most accurately describes the technique used in the passage to weaken the argument for the claim that aggressiveness is innate to human beings?
(a) the accuracy of the historical data cited in the argument for innate aggressiveness is called into question.
(b) the force of the concept of innateness used in the argument for innate aggressiveness is called into question.
(c) an attempt is made to undermine the argument for innate aggressiveness by arguing that there are no genetically based traits.
(d) an attempt is made to undermine the argument for innate aggressiveness by suggesting that it appeals to emotional considerations rather than to reason.
(e) an attempt is made to undermine the argument for innate aggressiveness by arguing that all peoples are peaceable.
question9-10
if a person chooses to walk rather than drive, there is one less vehicle emitting pollution into the air than there would be otherwise. therefore if people would walk whenever it is feasible for them to do so, then pollution will be greatly reduced.
9. which one of the following is an assumption on what the argument depends?
(a) cutting down on pollution can be achieved in a variety of ways.
(b) taking public transportation rather than driving is not always feasible.
(c) walking is the only feasible alternative to driving that results in a reduction in pollution.
(d) there are people who never drive but who prefer walk.
(e) people sometimes drive when it is feasible to walk instead.
10. which one of the following, if true, most strengthen the argument?
(a) if automobile passengers who never drive walk instead of ride, there will be fewer vehicles on the road as a result.
(b) nonmoving running vehicles, on average, emit half as much pollution per second as moving vehicles, but the greater congestion is , the more nonmoving running vehicles there are.
(c) since different vehicles can pollute at different rates, it is possible for one drive who walks to make a greater contribution to pollution prevention than another driver who walks.
(d) on average, buses pollute more than cars do, but buses usually carry more passengers than cars do.
(e) those who previously rode as passengers in a vehicle whose driver decides to walk instead of drive might themselves decide to drive.
11. editorial: the most vocal proponents of the proposed law are not permanent residents of this island but rather a few of the wealthiest summer residents, who leave when the vacation months have passed. these people will benefit
from passage of this law wile not having to deal with the problems associated with its adoption. therefore, anyone who supports the proposed law is serving only the interests of a few outsiders at the cost of creating problems for the island’s permanent residents.
which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
(a) the average income of the island’s summer residents is greater than the average income of its permanent residents.
(b) the problems associated with this law outweigh any benefit it might provide the island’s permanent residents.
(c) most of the island’s summer residents would benefit from passage of this law.
(d) most of the island’s summer residents support passage of this law.
(e) most of the island’s permanent residents oppose passage of this law.
12. vitamin xyz has long been a favorite among health food enthusiasts. in a recent large study, those who took large amounts of vitamin xyz daily for two years showed on average a 40 percent lower risk of heart disease than did members of a control groups. researchers corrected for differences in relevant health habits, such as diet.
which one of the following inference is most supported by the passage?
(a) taking large amount of vitamins is probably worth risking the side effects.
(b) those who take large doses of vitamin xyz daily for the next two years will exhibit on average an increase in the likelihood of avoiding heart disease.
(c) li who has taken large amounts of vitamin xyz daily for the past two years, has a 40 percent lower risk
(d) taking large amounts of vitamin xyz daily over the course of one’s adult life should be recommended to most adults.
(e) health food enthusiasts are probably correct in believing that large daily doses of multiple vitamin promote good health.
13. in 1988, a significant percentage of seals n the baltic sea died from viral disease: off the coast of scotland, however, the death rate due to viral diseases was approximately half what it was fort e baltic seals. the baltic seals and significantly higher levels of pollutants in their blood than did the scottish seals. since pollutants are known to impair marine mammal’s ability to fight off viral infection, it is likely that the higher death rate among the baltic seals was due to the higher levels of pollutants in their blood.
which one of the following, if true, provides the most additional support for the argument?
(a) the large majority of scottish seals that died were either old or unhealthy animals.
(b) the stain of virus impaired immune systems much more quickly than it does healthy immune systems.
(c) there were slight fluctuations in the levels of pollutants found in the blood of baltic sea.
(d) the kinds of pollutants found in the baltic sea are significantly different from those that have been detected in the waters off the coast of scotland.
(e) among marine mammals other than seals, the death rate due to viral diseases in 1988 was higher in the baltic sea than it was off the scottish coast.
14. if the proposed tax reduction package s adopted this year, the library will be forced to discontinue its daily story hours for children. but if the daily story hours are discontinued, many parents will be greatly inconvenienced. so the proposed tax reduction package will be adopted this year.
which one of the following, if assumed, allows the argument’s conclusion to be properly drawn?
(a) any tax reduction package that will not force the library to discontinue daily story hours will be adopted this year.
(b) every tax reduction package that would force the library to discontinue daily story hours would greatly inconvenience parents.
(c) no tax reduction package that would greatly inconvenience parents would fail to force the library to discontinue daily story hours.
(d) no tax reduction package that would greatly inconvenience parents will be adopted this year.
(e) any tax reduction package that will not greatly inconvenience parents will be adopted this year.
15. funding opponent: some people favor city funding for the spaying and neutering of pets at the owners request. they claims that the decrease in the number of stray animals to contend with will offset the costs of the funding. these people fail to realize that over 80 percent of pet owners already pay to spay or neuter their animals, so there will not be a significant decrease in the number of stray animals in the city if funding is provided.
each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument of the funding opponent except:
(a) very few of the stray animals in the city are offspring of pets.
(b) many pet owners would have their animals spayed or neutered sooner if funding were provided by the city.
(c) the only way the nu
mber of tray animals can decrease is if existing strays are spayed or neutered.
(d) most people owners who do not have their pets spayed or neutered believed that spaying and neutering are morally wrong.
(e) the majority of pets that are not spayed or neutered are used for breeding purposes, and are not likely to produce stray animals.
16. research indicates that college professors generally were raised in economically advantaged households. for it was discovered that, overall college professors grew up in communities with average household incomes that were higher than the average household income for the nation as a whole.
the reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument:
(a) inappropriately assumes a correlation between household income and economic advantage
(b) fails to note there are some communities with high average household incomes in which no college professors grew up
(c) presumes without justification that college professors generally were raised in households with incomes that are average or above average for their communities
(d) dose not take into account the fact that college professors generally have lower salaries than their counterparts in the private sector
(e) fails to take into account the fact that many college professors live in rural communities which generally have low average household incomes .
17. magazine article: punishment for crimes is justified if it actually deters people from committing them. but a great deal of carefully assembled and analyzed empirical data show clearly that punishment is not a deterrent. so punishment is never justified.
the reasoning in the magazine article’s argument is flawed because the argument
(a) depends on data that there is reason to suspect may be biased
(b) mistakenly allows the key term “punishment” to shift in meaning
(c) mistakes being sufficient to justify punishment for being required to justify it
(d) ignores the problem of mistakenly punishing the innocent
(e) attempts to be more precise than its subject matter properly allows
18. if the reasoning now playing on the jazz program is really “ louis armstrong recorded in concert in 1989.” as the announcer said, then louis armstrong was playing some of the best jazz of his career years after his death. since the trumpeter was definitely louis armstrong, somehow the announcer must have gotten the date of the recording wrong.
the patter of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments?
(a) the museum is reported as having acquired a painting “ by malvtna hoffman, an artist who died in 1966”. but hoffman was sculptor, not a painter, so the report must be wrong about the acquisition being a painting.
(b) this painting titled la toilette is berthe morisot’s la toilette only if a painting can be in two museums at the same time. since nothing can be in two places at once, this painting must somehow have been mistitled.
(c) only if a twentieth-century mexican artist painted in japan during the seventeenth century can this work both be “by frida kahlo” as labeled and the seventeenth century japanese landscape it appears to be. since it is what it appears to be, the label is wrong.
(d) unless kathe kollwitz was both a sculptor and a printmaker, the volunteer museum guide is wrong in his attribution of this sculpture. since what kollwitz is known for is her prints, the guide must be wrong.
(e) if this painting is a portrait done in acrylic, it cannot be by elisabeth vigger-lebrun, since acrylic paint was developed only after her death. thus, since it is definitely a portrait, the paint must not be acrylic.
19. when a stone is trimmed by a mason and exposed to the elements, a coating of a clay and other minerals, called rock varnish gradually accumulates on the freshly trimmed surface. organic matter trapped beneath the varnish on stones of an andean monument was found to be over 1000 years old. since the organic matter must have grown on the stone shortly after it was trimmed, it follows that the monument was built long before the arrival of europeans in the americas in 1492.
which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
(a) rock varnish itself contains some organic matter.
(b) the reuse of ancient trimmed stones was common in the andes both before and after 1492.
(c) the andean monument bears striking resemblance to monuments found in ancient sites in western asia.
(d) the earliest written reference to the andean monuments dates from 1778.
(e) rock varnish forms very slowly, if at all, on trimmed stones that stored in a dry, sheltered place.
20. legal rules are expressed in general terms. the concern classification of persons and actions and they prescribe legal cons
equences for persons and actions falling into the relevant categories. the application of a rule to a particular case, therefore, involves a decision on whether the facts of that case fall within the categories mentioned in the rule. this decision establishes the legal effect of what happened rather than any matter of fact.
the passage provides the most support for which one of the following?
(a) legal rules, like matters of fact, are concerned with classifications of things such as actions.
(b) matters of fact, like legal rules, can sometimes be expressed in general terms.
(c) making a legal decision does not involve matters of fact.
(d) the application of a rule to a particular case need not be left to a judge.
(e) whether the facts of a case fall into a relevant category is not itself a matter of fact.
questions 21—22
helen: it was wrong of my brother mark to tell our mother that the reason he had missed her birthday party the evening before was that he had been in a traffic accident and that by the time he was released from the hospital emergency room the party was log over. saying something that is false can never be other than morally wrong, and there had been no such accident—mark had simply forgotten all about the party.
21. the main conclusion drawn in helen’s argument is that
(a) mark did not tell his mother the truth
(b) the real reason mark missed his mother’s birthday party was that he had forgotten all about it.
(c) it is wrong to attempt to avoid blame for one’s failure to do something by claiming that one was prevented from doing that thing by events outside one’s control
(d) it was wrong of mark to tell his mother that he had missed her birthday party as a result of having been in a traffic accident
(e) it is always wrong not to tell the truth .
22. the justification helen offers for her judgment of mark’s behavior is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the justification
(a) ignores an important moral distinction between saying something that is false and failing to say something that one knows to be true
(b) confuses having identified one cause of a given effect with having eliminated the possibility of there being any other causes of that effect
(c) judges behavior that is outside an individual’s control according to moral standards that can properly be applied only to behavior that is within such control
(d) relies on an illegitimate appeal to pity to obscure the fact that the conclusion does not logically follow from the premises advanced
(e) attempts to justify a judgement about a particular case by citing a general principle that stands in far greater need of support than does the particular judgment.
23. candidate: the government spends $500 million more each year promoting highway safety than it spends combating cigarette smoking. but each year many more people die from smoking-related diseases than die in highway accidents. so the government would save lives by shifting funds from highway safety programs to antismoking programs.
the flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the candidate’s argument?
(a) the government enforces the speed limit on freeways much more closely than on tollways. but many more people die each year in auto accidents on freeways than die in auto accidents on tollways. so the government would save lives by shifting funds from enforcement of speed limits on freeways to enforcement of speed limits on tollways.
(b) a certain professional musician spends several times as many hours practicing guitar as she spends practicing saxophone. but she is hired much more often to play saxophone than to play guitar, so she would increase her number of playing engagements by spending less time practicing guitar and more time practicing saxophone.
(c) automobiles burn more gas per minute on highways than residential streets. but they get fewer miles per gallon on residential streets. therefore, gas would be saved by driving less on residential streets and more on highways.
(d) the local swim team spends many more hours practicing the backstroke than it spends practicing the breaststroke. nut the team’s lap times for the breaststroke are much better than its times for the backstroke, so the team would win more swim meets if it spent less time practicing the backstroke and more time practicing the breaststroke.
(e) banks have a higher profit margin on loans that have a high interest rate than on loans that have a low interest rate. but borrowers are willing to borrow larger sums at low rates than at high rates. therefore, banks would be more profitable if they gave more loans on low rates and fewer loans at high rates.
24. a person’s failure to keep a promise is wrong only if, first,
doing so harms the one to whom the promise is made and, second, all of those who discover the failure to keep the promise lose confidence in the person’s ability to keep promises.
which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above?
(a) ann kept her promise to repay felicia the money she owned her. further, this convinced everyone who knew ann that she is trustworthy. thus, ann’s keeping her promise was not wrong.
(b) jonathan took an oath of secrecy concerning the corporation’s technical secrets, but he sold them to a competitor. his action was wrong even though the corporation intended that he leak these secretes to its competitors.
(c) george promised to repay reiko the money he owed her. however, george was unable to keep his promise to reiko and as a result, reiko suffered a serious financial loss. thus, george’s failure to keep his promise was wrong.
(d) because he lost his job, carlo was unable to repay the money he promise to miriam. however, miriam did not need this money nor did she lose confidence in carlo’s ability to keep promises. so, carlo’s failure to keep his promise to miriam was not wrong.
(e) elizabeth promised to return the book she borrowed from steven within a week. but she was unable to do so because she became acutely ill. not knowing this, steven lost confidence in her ability to keep a promise. so, elizabeth’s failure to return the book to steven was wrong.
25. the end of an action is the intended outcome of the action and not a mere by-product of the action, and the end’s value is thus the only reason for the action. so while it is true that not every end’s value will justify any means, and even, perhaps, that there is no end whose value will justify every means, it is clear that nothing will justify a mans except an end’s value.
which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?
(a) the value o some ends may justify any means.
(b) one can always justify a given action by appeal to the value of its intended out come.
(c) one can justify an action only by appeal to the value of its intended outcome.
(d) only the value o the by-products of an action can justify that action.
(e) nothing can justify the intended outcome of an action except the value of that action’s actual outcomes.