美国公共行政学百年回顾 二_政治理论论文
消息是：尽管私有化对于校正公共部门的缺陷并非灵丹妙药，但私有部门的确给公共项目带来更有效率和更负责任的真正机会；私有化的坏消息是：压力可能导致私有部门能干得更好的事让公共部门干，由公共部门干更适合的事反而让私有部门去做。
组织思想的演变：女性的观点
到1990年，妇女在公共部门中的比例达到60%。妇女参与公共事务存在两大问题：一是工资偏低；二是所谓的“天花板效应”——即高层管理阶层的妇女比例偏低。笔者曾经做过计算，按照二十世纪的发展趋势，要达到国会中男女数量平等需要400年。女权主义组织分析家安克尔(joan acker)在《性别组织理论》(1992)一书中认为，长期男性对组织的控制导致了组织理论的男性观点：1.男女分工产生了男女不同的工作类型；2.创立了男性组织标志和形象；3.男女的关系是领导与被领导的关系；4.由于组织内男女分工和机会不均，不同性别应有不同行为和态度的观点逐渐成为心理和思维定势。对组织和管理的女性观点将会对公共行政学产生深刻的影响。公共行政学的女权主义理论家斯蒂夫(camilla stivers)在《公共行政中的男女形象：合法性与行政国》(1993)中说，“只要行政领域被看成与性别无关，妇女就将面对目前的霍布森(hobson)选择，即或是接受男性行政标志，或是接受官僚体制中靠边站的地位”。
机构前景：官僚体制改革还是质量改善的继续？
在二十世纪九十年代，新的管理见解对组织机构应当如何被管理、下属应当如何被指导、政府项目的消费者应当如何被对待等问题有重大影响。1992年，巴泽勒(michael barzelay)与阿摩亚尼(babak armajani)发表《突破官僚制：政府管理的新视野》。该书基于在明尼苏达州的革新实验，即通过强调顾客服务、给雇员授权、有选择性的竞争和减少行政规章制度而改变公共项目。两位作者认为，政府不应当是官僚型、规章制度约束、强调控制和没有灵活性，他们向韦伯型的传统组织结构和运作机理提出了挑战。
如果说巴泽勒与阿摩亚尼对传统管理的批评代表着对管理体制改革的呼吁，那么，质量管理运动则提供了内在改革的动力。最初的全方位质量管理(total quality management-tqm)源于私有企业部门，但《公共生产力与管理评论》(public productivity and management review-ppmr)在过去二十多年的努力也使我们认识到tqm对于公共部门机构业绩与质量改善的重要性。ppmr提供了丰富的案例以及公共机构如何改善、引入、调整并保持连续的质量改进的理论性评论。ppmr杂志的资深主编霍哲(marc holzer)教授在生产力与质量管理(productivity and quality management)(1995)一文中评论了质量管理以及质量管理对于公共部门管理的启迪。很明显，九十年代的tqm已经成为公共管理的基本方法。tqm的核心特征是统计评估、顾客反馈、雇员参与质量改善、供应商合作。这些tqm的手段和方法已经成为当今多数经理的“管理常识”。不少人认为，质量管理不仅适用于制造业，而且更适合服务部门。质量管理已成为公共管理的部分基础。
公共政策与分析的迅猛发展
首先，许多公共事务学院在加州大学伯克利分校的带领下纷纷部分或全部转向公共政策，尽管锡拉丘兹大学麦克斯韦尔学院及南加州大学仍然高举公共行政大旗，亦增添了政策研究方向。最初的政策研究包括政策形成理论、政策分析技术、政策执行、政策和政策评估等，重心开始转向政策形成（政策制定）和政策内容（政策分析）。其次，一批新成立的杂志为政策研究增添了活力。如政策分析和管理杂志(journal of policy analysis and management)、政策研究杂志(policy studies journal)、政策研究评论(policy studies review)以及政策科学(policy sciences)等。最后，进入二十世纪九十年代，政策科学已经成为一门独立的研究领域，大有与公共行政学分庭抗礼之势。政策分析融入经济学、学、公共财政、系统理论以及其它社会学科，以研究公共政策如何形成和如何完善政府项目。
结束语：政府改革——永恒的主题
归纳起来，莱特(paul c. light)在《改革的浪潮：改善政府工作，1945-1995》(1997)一书中，了改革的四大浪潮：1.管理，强调严格的等级制、分工、清楚的命令链；2.向浪费宣战，重点是监督员、审计员、核对员、评审员；3.警惕的眼睛，倡导阳光、公开性、透明度；4.解放管理，呼吁让管理者去管理。
财政紧缩和业绩改善只是政府面临的诸多压力的一部分。进入二十世纪，公众对政府的信心在下降，这或许是家们不得不反复进行政府改革的主要原因。克林顿总统上任3个月就宣布了他的改革，于1993年成立了由副总统戈尔挂帅的“美国业绩评论委员会”(npr)。当我们回眸二十世纪，就不难发现无论是1910,1937,1949,1972,1982，还是1993的政府改革，都有一个共同的假设：即美国联邦政府的机能失调、组织涣散、业绩平平——不能让公众满意。
1883年彭德尔顿法案创立了美国公务员委员会，公务员制度的建立以及城市膨胀的需求催生了美国的公共行政学。1887年，威尔逊提出了创立独立的行政学学科的构想。随后，古德诺于1900年谈到行政学与学的分离。再之后，泰勒开始了管理的研究。30年代的罗斯福新政，尤其是布郎诺报告直接诱发了政府部门的膨胀和改革——1993年至2000年执政的克林顿仍旧在重塑政府。一次次改革，一次次不同的主题，变化的是内容，不变的是要改变、要改革的努力。
改革政府并非是美国的独有现象。无论是东方还是西方，无论是北半球还是南半球，无论是工业发达国家、发展中国家还是前苏联或东欧转轨国家，在二十世纪末都汹涌着改革的浪潮。无论是源于财政危机、管理危机或是信仰危机，出路只有一条，那就是不断的改革。改革政府不仅是我们时代的主旋律，也必将是未来政府所要面临的长期挑战。
作者感谢下列教授在《美国公共行政学百年回顾》及相关课程所给予笔者的指导和帮助：霍哲教授(marc holzer)、达布里克教授(melvin dubnick)、威克（女）教授(marcia whicker)、梅戈特（女）教授(astrid merget)、英格拉姆（女）教授(patricia ingraham)、布雷思莱德教授(stuart bretchneider)、斯特劳思曼教授(jeffreystraussman)。
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组织思想的演变：女性的观点
到1990年，妇女在公共部门中的比例达到60%。妇女参与公共事务存在两大问题：一是工资偏低；二是所谓的“天花板效应”——即高层管理阶层的妇女比例偏低。笔者曾经做过计算，按照二十世纪的发展趋势，要达到国会中男女数量平等需要400年。女权主义组织分析家安克尔(joan acker)在《性别组织理论》(1992)一书中认为，长期男性对组织的控制导致了组织理论的男性观点：1.男女分工产生了男女不同的工作类型；2.创立了男性组织标志和形象；3.男女的关系是领导与被领导的关系；4.由于组织内男女分工和机会不均，不同性别应有不同行为和态度的观点逐渐成为心理和思维定势。对组织和管理的女性观点将会对公共行政学产生深刻的影响。公共行政学的女权主义理论家斯蒂夫(camilla stivers)在《公共行政中的男女形象：合法性与行政国》(1993)中说，“只要行政领域被看成与性别无关，妇女就将面对目前的霍布森(hobson)选择，即或是接受男性行政标志，或是接受官僚体制中靠边站的地位”。
机构前景：官僚体制改革还是质量改善的继续？
在二十世纪九十年代，新的管理见解对组织机构应当如何被管理、下属应当如何被指导、政府项目的消费者应当如何被对待等问题有重大影响。1992年，巴泽勒(michael barzelay)与阿摩亚尼(babak armajani)发表《突破官僚制：政府管理的新视野》。该书基于在明尼苏达州的革新实验，即通过强调顾客服务、给雇员授权、有选择性的竞争和减少行政规章制度而改变公共项目。两位作者认为，政府不应当是官僚型、规章制度约束、强调控制和没有灵活性，他们向韦伯型的传统组织结构和运作机理提出了挑战。
如果说巴泽勒与阿摩亚尼对传统管理的批评代表着对管理体制改革的呼吁，那么，质量管理运动则提供了内在改革的动力。最初的全方位质量管理(total quality management-tqm)源于私有企业部门，但《公共生产力与管理评论》(public productivity and management review-ppmr)在过去二十多年的努力也使我们认识到tqm对于公共部门机构业绩与质量改善的重要性。ppmr提供了丰富的案例以及公共机构如何改善、引入、调整并保持连续的质量改进的理论性评论。ppmr杂志的资深主编霍哲(marc holzer)教授在生产力与质量管理(productivity and quality management)(1995)一文中评论了质量管理以及质量管理对于公共部门管理的启迪。很明显，九十年代的tqm已经成为公共管理的基本方法。tqm的核心特征是统计评估、顾客反馈、雇员参与质量改善、供应商合作。这些tqm的手段和方法已经成为当今多数经理的“管理常识”。不少人认为，质量管理不仅适用于制造业，而且更适合服务部门。质量管理已成为公共管理的部分基础。
公共政策与分析的迅猛发展
首先，许多公共事务学院在加州大学伯克利分校的带领下纷纷部分或全部转向公共政策，尽管锡拉丘兹大学麦克斯韦尔学院及南加州大学仍然高举公共行政大旗，亦增添了政策研究方向。最初的政策研究包括政策形成理论、政策分析技术、政策执行、政策和政策评估等，重心开始转向政策形成（政策制定）和政策内容（政策分析）。其次，一批新成立的杂志为政策研究增添了活力。如政策分析和管理杂志(journal of policy analysis and management)、政策研究杂志(policy studies journal)、政策研究评论(policy studies review)以及政策科学(policy sciences)等。最后，进入二十世纪九十年代，政策科学已经成为一门独立的研究领域，大有与公共行政学分庭抗礼之势。政策分析融入经济学、学、公共财政、系统理论以及其它社会学科，以研究公共政策如何形成和如何完善政府项目。
结束语：政府改革——永恒的主题
归纳起来，莱特(paul c. light)在《改革的浪潮：改善政府工作，1945-1995》(1997)一书中，了改革的四大浪潮：1.管理，强调严格的等级制、分工、清楚的命令链；2.向浪费宣战，重点是监督员、审计员、核对员、评审员；3.警惕的眼睛，倡导阳光、公开性、透明度；4.解放管理，呼吁让管理者去管理。
财政紧缩和业绩改善只是政府面临的诸多压力的一部分。进入二十世纪，公众对政府的信心在下降，这或许是家们不得不反复进行政府改革的主要原因。克林顿总统上任3个月就宣布了他的改革，于1993年成立了由副总统戈尔挂帅的“美国业绩评论委员会”(npr)。当我们回眸二十世纪，就不难发现无论是1910,1937,1949,1972,1982，还是1993的政府改革，都有一个共同的假设：即美国联邦政府的机能失调、组织涣散、业绩平平——不能让公众满意。
1883年彭德尔顿法案创立了美国公务员委员会，公务员制度的建立以及城市膨胀的需求催生了美国的公共行政学。1887年，威尔逊提出了创立独立的行政学学科的构想。随后，古德诺于1900年谈到行政学与学的分离。再之后，泰勒开始了管理的研究。30年代的罗斯福新政，尤其是布郎诺报告直接诱发了政府部门的膨胀和改革——1993年至2000年执政的克林顿仍旧在重塑政府。一次次改革，一次次不同的主题，变化的是内容，不变的是要改变、要改革的努力。
改革政府并非是美国的独有现象。无论是东方还是西方，无论是北半球还是南半球，无论是工业发达国家、发展中国家还是前苏联或东欧转轨国家，在二十世纪末都汹涌着改革的浪潮。无论是源于财政危机、管理危机或是信仰危机，出路只有一条，那就是不断的改革。改革政府不仅是我们时代的主旋律，也必将是未来政府所要面临的长期挑战。
作者感谢下列教授在《美国公共行政学百年回顾》及相关课程所给予笔者的指导和帮助：霍哲教授(marc holzer)、达布里克教授(melvin dubnick)、威克（女）教授(marcia whicker)、梅戈特（女）教授(astrid merget)、英格拉姆（女）教授(patricia ingraham)、布雷思莱德教授(stuart bretchneider)、斯特劳思曼教授(jeffreystraussman)。
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