GMAT阅读 ——（1）_GMAT
businesses in the united states unprecedented
opportunities-as well as new and significant risks.
civil rights activists have long argued that one of
(5)爐he principal reasons why blacks, hispanics, and
other minority groups have difficulty establishing
themselves in business is that they lack access to
the sizable orders and subcontracts that are gener-
ated by large companies. now congress, in appar-
(10) ent agreement, has required by law that businesses
awarded federal contracts of more than $500,000
do their best to find minority subcontractors and
record their efforts to do so on forms filed with the
government. indeed, some federal and local agen-
(15) cies have gone so far as to set specific percentage
goals for apportioning parts of public works con-
tracts to minority enterprises.
牐牐 corporate response appears to have been sub-
stantial. according to figures collected in 1977,
(20) the total of corporate contracts with minority busi-
nesses rose from $77 million in 1972 to $1. lbillion
in 1977. the projected total of corporate contracts
with minority businesses for the early 1980’s is
estimated to be over 53 billion per year with no
(25) letup anticipated in the next decade.
燩romising as it is for minority businesses, this
increased patronage poses dangers for them, too.
first, minority firms risk expanding too fast and
overextending themselves financially, since most
(30) are small concerns and, unlike large businesses,
they often need to make substantial investments in
new plants, staff, equipment, and the like in order
to perform work subcontracted to them. if, there-
after, their subcontracts are for some reason
(35) reduced, such firms can face potentially crippling
fixed expenses. the world of corporate purchasing
can be frustrating for small entrepreneurs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 awho get
requests for elaborate formal estimates and bids.
both consume valuable time and resources, and a
(40)爏mall company’s efforts must soon result in
orders, or both the morale and the financial health
of the business will suffer.
a second risk is that white-owned companies
may seek to cash in on the increasing apportion-
(45) ments through formation of joint ventures with
minority-owned concerns. of course, in many
instances there are legitimate reasons for joint
ventures; clearly, white and minority enterprises
can team up to acquire business that neither could
(50) acquire alone. but civil rights groups and minority
business owners have complained to congress about
minorities being set up as “fronts” with white back-
ing, rather than being accepted as full partners in
legitimate joint ventures.
(55)牐牐燭hird, a minority enterprise that secures the
business of one large corporate customer often run
the danger of becoming--and remaining-dependent.
even in the best of circumstances, fierce compe-
tition from larger, more established companies
(60) makes it difficult for small concerns to broaden
their customer bases: when such firms have nearly
guaranteed orders from a single corporate bene-
factor, they may truly have to struggle against
complacency arising from their current success.
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to
(a) present a commonplace idea and its
牐 inaccuracies
(b) describe a situation and its potential drawbacks
(c) propose a temporary solution to a problem
(d) analyze a frequent source of disagreement
(e) explore the implications of a finding
2. the passage supplies information that would answer
爓hich of the following questions?
(a) what federal agencies have set percentage goals for
牐 the use of minority-owned businesses in public
牐 works contracts?
(b) to wh
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 aich government agencies must 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ao expand its customer base to avoid 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 actant to pursue many 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 anonstarters were 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 aed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 a” 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 a5) along the ridge. this view may be correct: it has 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ausly require explanation in because, addi- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ait could be demonstrated, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ae been too strong for the pterosaurs to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 a) they were unable to fold their wings when not in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ance of secondary earners among 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 a(50) uncertain whether those suffering seriously as a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ausing multiple approaches [7] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 aously were employed in the labor [8] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 aisted in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 athe financial situation in which japan’s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ay. [9] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 ad as a deterrent to trade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 [10]
牐 businesses awarded federal contracts report their
牐 efforts to find minority subcontractors?
(c) how widespread is the use of minority-owned
牐 concerns as “fronts” by white backers seeking to
牐 obtain subcontracts?
(d) how many more minority-owned businesses were
牐 there in 1977 than in 1972?
(e) what is one set of conditions under which a
牐 small business might find itself financially over-
牐 extended?
3. according to the passage, civil rights activists
爉aintain that one disadvantage under which
爉inority- owned businesses have traditionally had
爐o labor is that they have
(a) been especially vulnerable to governmental
>牐 mismanagement of the economy
(b) been denied bank loans at rates comparable to
牐 those afforded larger competitors
(c) not had sufficient opportunity to secure business
牐 created by large corporations
(d) not been able to advertise in those media that
牐 reach large numbers of potential customers
(e) not had adequate representation in the centers of
牐 government power
4. the passage suggests that the failure of a large
燽usiness to have its bids for subcontracts result
爍uickly in orders might cause it to
(a) experience frustration but not serious financial
牐 harm
(b) face potentially crippling fixed expenses
(c) have to record its efforts on forms filed with the
牐 government
(d) increase its spending with minority
牐 subcontractors
(e) revise its procedure for making bids for federal
牐 contracts and subcontracts
5. the author implies that a minority-owned concern
爐hat does the greater part of its business with one
爈arge corporate customer should
(a) avoid competition with larger, more established
牐 concerns by not expanding (b) concentrate on securing even more business
牐 from that corporation
(c) try t
牐 becoming dependent on the corporation(d) pass on some of the work to be done for the
牐 corporation to other minority-owned concerns
(e) use its influence with the corporation to promote
牐 subcontracting with other minority concerns
6. it can be inferred from the passage that, compared
with the requirements of law, the percentage goals
set by “some federal and local agencies ”(lines 14-
15) are
(a) more popular with large corporations
(b) more specific
(c) less controversial
(d) less expensive to enforce
(e) easier to comply with
7. which of the following, if true, would most weaken the
燼uthor’s assertion that, in the 1970’s, corporate
爎esponse to federal requirements (lines 18-19) was
爏ubstantial
(a) corporate contracts with minority-owned
牐牐燽usinesses totaled $2 billion in 1979.
(b) between 1970 and 1972, corporate contracts with
牐牐爉inority-owned businesses declined by 25
牐牐爌ercent.
(c) the figures collected in 1977 underrepresented
牐牐爐he extent of corporate contracts with minority-
牐牐爋wned businesses.
(d) the estimate of corporate spending with
牐牐爉inority-owned businesses in 1980 is
牐牐燼pproximately $10 million too high.
(e) the $1.1 billion represented the same
牐牐爌ercentage of total corporate spending in 1977
牐牐燼s did $77 million in 1972.
8. the author would most likely agree with which of the
following statements about corporate response to
working with minority subcontractors?
(a) annoyed by the proliferation of “front”
牐 organizations, corporations are likely to reduce
牐 their efforts to work with minority-owned
牐 subcontractors in the near future.
(b) although corporations showed considerable
牐 interest in working with minority businesses in
牐 the 1970’s, their aversion to government
牐 paperwork made them relu
牐 government contracts.(c) the significant response of corporations in the
牐 1970’s is likely to be sustained and conceivably
牐 be increased throughout the 1980’s.
(d) although corporations are eager to cooperate
牐 with minority-owned businesses, a shortage of
牐 capital in the 1970’s made substantial response
牐 impossible.
(e) the enormous corporate response has all but
牐 eliminated the dangers of overexpansion that
牐 used to plague small minority-owned businesses.
passage 2
牐牐燱oodrow wilson was referring to the liberal
idea of the economic market when he said that
the free enterprise system is the most efficient
economic system. maximum freedom means
(5) maximum productiveness; our “openness” is to
be the measure of our stability. fascination with
this ideal has made americans defy the “old
world” categories of settled possessiveness versus
unsettling deprivation, the cupidity of retention
(10) versus the cupidity of seizure, a “status quo”
defended or attacked. the united states, it was
believed, had no status quo ante. our only “sta-
tion” was the turning of a stationary wheel, spin-
ning faster and faster. we did not base our
(15) system on property but opportunity---which
meant we based it not on stability but on mobil-
ity. the more things changed, that is, the more
rapidly the wheel turned, the
steadier we would
be. the conventional picture of class politics is
(20) composed of the haves, who want a stability to
keep what they have, and the have-nots, who
want a touch of instability and change in which
to scramble for the things they have not. but
americans imagined a condition in which spec-
(25) ulators, self-makers, runners are always using the
new opportunities given by our land. these eco-
nomic leaders (front-runners) would thus he
mainly agents of change. the
considered the ones who wanted stability, a
(30) strong referee to give them some position in the
race, a regulative hand to calm manic specula-
tion; an authority that can call things to a halt,
begin things again from compensatorily stag-
gered “starting lines.”
(35) “reform” in america has been sterile because
it can imagine no change except through the
extension of this metaphor of a race, wider inclu-
sion of competitors, “a piece of the action,” as it
were, for the disenfranchised. there is no
(40) attempt to call off the race. since our only sta-
bility is change, america seems not to honor the
quiet work that achieves social interdependence
and stability. there is, in our legends, no hero-
ism of the office clerk, no stable industrial work
(45) force of the people who actually make the system
work. there is no pride in being an employee
(wilson asked for a return to the time when
everyone was an employer). there has been no
boasting about our social workers---they are
(50) merely signs of the system’s failure, of opportu-
nity denied or not taken, of things to be elimi-
nated. we have no pride in our growing
interdependence, in the fact that our system can
serve others, that we are able to help those in
(55) need; empty boasts from the past make us
ashamed of our present achievements, make us
try to forget or deny them, move away from
them. there is no honor but in the wonderland
race we must all run, all trying to win, none
(60) winning in the end (for there is no end).
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to
(a) criticize the inflexibility of american economic
牐 mythology
(b) contrast “old world” and “new world” economic
牐 ideologies
(c) challenge the integrity of traditional political
牐 leaders
(d) champion those americans whom the author
牐 deems to be neglect
(e) suggest a substitute for the traditional metaphor
牐 of a race
2. according to the passage, “old world” values were
based on
(a) ability
(b) property
(c) family connections
(d) guild hierarchies
(e) education
3. in the context of the author’s discussion of
爎egulating change, which of the following could be
爉ost probably regarded as a “strong referee” (line
30) in the united states?
(a) a school principal
(b) a political theorist
(c) a federal court judge
(d) a social worker
(e) a government inspector
4. the author sets off the word “reform” (line 35) with
爍uotation marks in order to
(a) emphasize its departure from the concept of
牐 settled possessiveness
(b) show his support for a systematic program of
牐 change
(c) underscore the flexibility and even amorphousness
牐 of united states society.
(d) indicate that the term was one of wilson’s favorites
(e) assert that reform in the united states has not
牐 been fundamental
5. it can be inferred from the passage that the author
爉ost probably thinks that giving the disenfranchised
牎癮 piece of the action ” (line 38) is
(a) a compassionate, if misdirected, legislative
牐 measure
(b) an example of americans’ resistance to profound
牐爏ocial change
(c) an innovative program for genuine social reform
(d) a monument to the efforts of industrial reformers
(e) a surprisingly “old world” remedy for social ills
6. which of the following metaphors could the author
爉ost appropriately use to summarize his own
燼ssessment of the american economic system
(lines 35-60)?
(a) a windmill(b) a waterfall
(c) a treadmill
(d) a gyroscope (e) a bellows
7. it can be inferred from the passage that woodrow
wilson’s ideas about the economic market
(a) encouraged those who “make the system work
牐 (lines 45-46)
(b) perpetuated traditional legends about america
(c) rev
ealed the prejudices of a man born wealthy
(d) foreshadowed the stock market crash of 1929
(e) began a tradition of presidential proclamations on
牐 economics
8. the passage contains information that would answer
which of the following questions?
牏.what techniques have industrialists used to
牐 manipulate a free market?
牏.in what ways are “ new world” and “ old world”
牐 economic policies similar?
牏. has economic policy in the united states tended
牐牐爐o reward independent action?
(a) Ⅰonly (b) Ⅱonly
(c) Ⅲ only
(d) Ⅰand Ⅱ only
(e) Ⅱand Ⅲ only
9. which of the following best expresses the author’s
main point?
(a) americans’ pride in their jobs continues to give
牐 them stamina today.(b) the absence of a status quo ante has
牐 undermined united states economic structure.
(c) the free enterprise system has been only a
牐牐爑seless concept in the united states
(d) the myth of the american free enterprise system
牐牐爄s seriously flawed.
(e) fascination with the ideal of “openness” has
牐牐爉ade americans a progressive people.
passage 3
牐牐燦o very satisfactory account of the mechanism
that caused the formation of the ocean basins has
yet been given. the traditional view supposes
that the upper mantle of the earth behaves as a
(5)爈iquid when it is subjected to small forces for
long periods and that differences in temperature
under oceans and continents are sufficient to
produce convection in the mantle of the earth
with rising convection currents under the mid-
(10) ocean ridges and sinking currents under the con-
tinents. theoretically, this convection would
carry the continental plates along as though they
were on a conveyor belt and would provide the
forces needed to produce the split that occurs
(1
the advantage that the currents are driven by
temperature differences that themselves depend
on the position of the continents. such a back-
coupling, in which the position of the moving
(20) plate has an impact on the forces that move it,
could produce complicated and varying motions.
on the other hand, the theory is implausible
because convection does not normally occur
along lines. and it certainly does not occur along
(25) lines broken by frequent offsets or changes in
direction, as the ridge is. also it is difficult to see
how the theory applies to the plate between the
mid-atlantic ridge and the ridge in the indian
ocean. this plate is growing on both sides, and
(30) since there is no intermediate trench, the two
ridges must be moving apart. it would be odd if
the rising convection currents kept exact pace
with them. an alternative theory is that the sink-
ing part of the plate, which is denser than the
(35) hotter surrounding mantle, pulls the rest of the
plate after it. again it is difficult to see how this
applies to the ridge in the south atlantic, where
neither the african nor the american plate has a
sinking part.
(40) another possibility is that the sinking plate
cools the neighboring mantle and produces con-
vection currents that move the plates. this last
theory is attractive because it gives some hope of
explaining the enclosed seas, such as the sea of
(45) japan. these seas have a typical oceanic floor,
except that the floor is overlaid by several kilo-
meters of sediment. their floors have probably
been sinking for long periods. it seems possible
that a sinking current of cooled mantle material
(50) on the upper side of the plate might be the cause
of such deep basins. the enclosed seas are an
important feature of the earth’s surface, and
serio
tion to the enclosed seas that are developing at
present behind island arcs, there are a number of
(55) older ones of possibly similar origin, such as the
gulf of mexico, the black sea, and perhaps the
north sea.
1. according to the traditional view of the origin of the
爋cean basins, which of the following is sufficient to
爉ove the continental plates?
(a) increases in sedimentation on ocean floors
(b) spreading of ocean trenches
(c) movement of mid-ocean ridges
(d) sinking of ocean basins (e) differences in temperature under oceans and
牐 continents
2. it can be inferred from the passage that, of the follo-
爓ing, the deepest sediments would be found in the
(a) indian ocean
(b) black sea
(c)
mid-atlantic
(d) south atlantic
(e) pacific
3. the author refers to a “conveyor belt ” in line 13 in
爋rder to
(a) illustrate the effects of convection in the mantle
(b) show how temperature differences depend on
牐 the positions of the continents
(c) demonstrate the linear nature of the mid-atlantic
牐 ridge
(d) describe the complicated motions made possible
牐牐燽y back-coupling
(e) account for the rising currents under certain mid-
牐 ocean ridges
4. the author regards the traditional view of the origin
of the oceans with
(a) slight apprehension
(b) absolute indifference
(c) indignant anger
(d) complete disbelief
(e) guarded skepticism
5. according to the passage, which of the following are
爏eparated by a plate that is growing on both sides?
(a) the pacific ocean and the sea of japan
(b) the south atlantic ridge and the north sea ridge
(c) the gulf of mexico and the south atlantic ridge
(d) the mid-atlantic ridge and the indian ocean
牐牐燫idge (e) the black sea and the sea of japan
6. which of the following, if
爓ould most support the traditional view of ocean
爁ormation?
(a) convection usually occurs along lines.
(b) the upper mantle behaves as a dense solid.
(c) sedimentation occurs at a constant rate.
(d) sinking plates cool the mantle.(e) island arcs surround enclosed seas.
7. according to the passage, the floor of the black sea
燾an best be compared to a
(a) rapidly moving conveyor belt (b) slowly settling foundation
(c) rapidly expanding balloon
(d) violently erupting volcano
(e) slowly eroding mountain
8. which of the following titles would best describe the
燾ontent of the passage?
(a) a description of the oceans of the world
(b) several theories of ocean basin formation
(c) the traditional view of the oceans (d) convection and ocean currents (e) temperature differences among the oceans of
牐 the world
passage 4
牐 the fossil remains of the first flying vertebrates, the
pterosaurs, have intrigued paleontologists for more
than two centuries. how such large creatures, which
爓eighed in some cases as much as a piloted hang-glider
(5) and had wingspans from 8 to 12 meters, solved the
problems of powered flight, and exactly what these
creatures were--reptiles or birds-are among the ques-
tions scientists have puzzled over.
燩erhaps the least controversial assertion about the
(10) pterosaurs is that they were reptiles. their skulls,
pelvises, and hind feet are reptilian. the anatomy of
their wings suggests that they did not evolve into the
class of birds. in pterosaurs a greatly elongated fourth
finger of each forelimb supported a winglike membrane.
(15) the other fingers were short and reptilian, with sharp
claws. in birds the second finger is the principal strut
of the wing, which consists primarily of feathers. if the
pterosaurs walked on all fours, the three short finger
may have been employed for grasping. when a
(20) pterosaur walked or remained stationary, the fourth
finger, and with it the wing, could only turn upward in
an extended inverted v-shape along each side of the animal’s body.
the pterosaurs resembled both birds and bats in
(25) their overall structure and proportions. this is not sur-
prising because the design of any flying vertebrate is
subject to aerodynamic constraints. both the pterosaurs
and the birds have hollow bones, a feature that repre-
sents a savings in weight. in the birds, however, these
(30) bones are reinforced more massively by internal struts.
燗lthough scales typically cover reptiles, the
pterosaurs probably had hairy coats. t.h. huxley rea-
soned that flying vertebrates must have been warm-
blooded because flying implies a high rate of
(35) metabolism, which in turn implies a high internal tem-
perature. huxley speculated that a coat of hair would
insulate against loss of body heat and might streamline
the body to reduce drag in flight. the recent discovery
of a pterosaur specimen covered in long, dense, and
(40) relatively thick hairlike fossil material was the first clear
evidence that his reasoning was correct.
efforts to explain how the pterosaurs became air-
borne have led to suggestions that they launched them-
selves by jumping from cliffs, by dropping from trees.
(45) or even by rising into light winds from the crests of
waves. each hypothesis has its diff
iculties. the first
wrongly assumes that the pterosaurs’ hind feet rese-
mbled a bat’s and could serve as hooks by which the
animal could hang in preparation for flight. the second
(50) hypothesis seems unlikely because large pterosaurs
could not have landed in trees without damaging their
wings. the third calls for high waves to channel
updrafts. the wind that made such waves however,
might hav
(55) control their flight once airborne.
1. it can be inferred from the passage that scientists now
爂enerally agree that the
(a) enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled
牐 them to fly great distances(b) structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a
牐燾lose evolutionary relationship to bats
(c) fossil remains of the pterosaurs reveal how they
牐爏olved the problem of powered flight
(d) pterosaurs were reptiles
(e) pterosaurs walked on all fours
2. the author views the idea that the pterosaurs
became airborne by rising into light winds created
by waves as
(a) revolutionary
(b) unlikely
(c) unassailable
(d) probable
(e) outdated
3. according to the passage, the skeleton of a
爌terosaur can be distinguished from that of a bird by
爐he
(a) size of its wingspan
(b) presence of hollow spaces in its bones
(c) anatomic origin of its wing strut
(d) presence of hooklike projections on its hind feet
(e) location of the shoulder joint joining the wing to its
body
4. the ideas attributed to t.h. huxley in the passage
爏uggest that he would most likely agree with which
爋f the following statements?
(a) an animal’s brain size has little bearing on its
牐 ability to master complex behaviors.
(b) an animal’s appearance is often influenced by
牐 environmental requirements and physical
牐 capabilities.
(c) animals within a given family group are unlikely
牐 to change their appearance dramatically over a
牐 period of time.
(d) the origin of flight in vertebrates was an
牐 accidental development rather than the outcome
牐 of specialization or adaptation.
(e) the pterosaurs should be classified as birds, not
牐牐爎eptiles.
5. it can be inferred from the passage that which of the
following is characteristic of the pterosaurs?
(a
牐牐爑se.
(b) they hung upside down from branches as bats
牐 do before flight.
(c) they flew in order to capture prey.(d) they were an early stage in the evolution of the
牐牐燽irds.
(e) they lived primarily in a forestlike habitat.
6.which of the following best describes the organization
爋f the last paragraph of the passage?
(a) new evidence is introduced to support a
牐牐爐raditional point of view.
(b) three explanations for a phenomenon are
牐 presented, and each is disputed by means of
牐 specific information.
(c) three hypotheses are outlined, and evidence
牐牐爏upporting each is given.
(d) recent discoveries are described, and their
牐 implications for future study are projected
(e) a summary of the material in the preceding
牐 paragraphs is presented, and conclusions are
牐 drawn.
7. it can be inferred from the passage that some
爏cientists believe that pterosaurs
(a) lived near large bodies of water
(b) had sharp teeth for tearing food
(c) were attacked and eaten by larger reptiles
(d) had longer tails than many birds (e) consumed twice their weight daily to maintain
牐 their body temperature
passage 5
牐牐 how many really suffer as a result of labor mar-
ket problems? this is one of the most critical yet
contentious social policy questions. in many ways,
our social statistics exaggerate the degree of hard-
(5) ship. unemployment does not have the same dire
consequences today as it did in the 1930’s when
most of the unemployed were primary breadwin-
ners, when income and earnings were usually much
closer to the margin of subsistence, and when there
(10) were no countervailing social programs for those
failing in the labor market. increasing affluence, the
rise of families with more than one wage earner, the
growing predomina
the unemployed, and improved social welfare pro-
(15) tection have unquestionably mitigated the conse-
quences of joblessness. earnings a
nd income data
also overstate the dimensions of hardship. among
the millions with hourly earnings at or below the
minimum wage level, the overwhelming majority
(20) are from multiple-earner, relatively affluent
families. most of those counted by the poverty
statistics are elderly or handicapped or have family
responsibilities which keep them out of the labor
force, so the poverty statistics are by no means an
(25) accurate indicator of labor market pathologies.
燳et there are also many ways our social statistics
underestimate the degree of labor-market-related
hardship. the unemployment counts exclude the
millions of fully employed workers whose wages are
(30) so low that their families remain in poverty. low
wages and repeated or prolonged unemployment
frequently interact to undermine the capacity for
self-support. since the number experiencing jobless-
ness at some time during the year is several times
(35)the number unemployed in any month, those who
suffer as a result of forced idleness can equal or
exceed average annual unemployment, even though
only a minority of the jobless in any month really
suffer. for every person counted in the monthly
(40) unemployment tallies, there is another working
part-time because of the inability to find full-time
work, or else outside the labor force but wanting a
job. finally, income transfers in our country have
always focused on the elderly, disabled, and depen-
(45)dent, neglecting the needs of the working poor, so
that the dramatic expansion of cash and in-kind
transfers does not necessarily mean that those fail-
ing in the labor market are adequately protected.
as a result of such contradictory evidence, it is
result of thousands or the tens of millions, and,
hence, whether high levels of joblessness can be tol-
erated or must be countered by job creation and
(55) economic stimulus. there is only one area of agree-
ment in this debate---that the existing poverty,
employment, and earnings statistics are inadequate
for one their primary applications, measuring the
consequences of labor market problems.
1. which of the following is the principal topic of the
passage?
(a) what causes labor market pathologies that result
牐牐爄n suffering
(b) why income measures are imprecise in measuring
牐 degrees of poverty
(c) which of the currently used statistical procedures
牐 are the best for estimating the incidence of
牐 hardship that is due to unemployment
(d) where the areas of agreement are among
牐 poverty, employment, and earnings figures
(e) how social statistics give an unclear picture of the
牐 degree of hardship caused by low wages and
牐 insufficient employment opportunities
2. the author uses “labor market problems” in lines 1-2
to refer to which of the following?
(a) the overall causes of poverty
(b) deficiencies in the training of the work force
(c) trade relationships among producers of goods
(d) shortages of jobs providing adequate income
(e) strikes and inadequate supplies of labor
3. the author contrasts the 1930’s with the present in
爋rder to show that
(a) more people were unemployed in the 1930’s
(b) unemployment now has less severe effects
(c) social programs are more needed now
(d) there now is a greater proportion of elderly and
牐 handicapped people among those in poverty
(e) poverty has increased since the 1930’s
4.which of the following proposals best responds to the
爄ssues raised by the author?
(a) innovative programs
should be set up to reduce the level of
unemployment.
(b) a compromise should be found between the
牐爌ositions of those who view joblessness as an
牐爀vil greater than economic control and those who
牐爃old the opposite view.
(c) new statistical indices should be developed to
牐爉easure the degree to which unemployment and
牐爄nadequately paid employment cause suffering.
(d) consideration should be given to the ways in which
statistics can act as partial causes of the phenomena
that they purport to measure.
(e) the labor force should be restructured so that it
corresponds to the range of job vacancies.
5.the author’s purpose in citing those who are repeatedly
爑nemployed during a twelve-month period is most
爌robably to show that
(a) there are several factors that cause the payment
牐爋f low wages to some membe
rs of the labor force
(b) unemployment statistics can underestimate the
牐爃ardship resulting from joblessness
(c) recurrent inadequacies in the labor market can
牐爀xist and can cause hardships for individual
牐爓orkers
(d) a majority of those who are jobless at any one
牐爐ime to not suffer severe hardship
(e) there are fewer individuals who are without jobs
at some time during a year than would be
expected on the basis of monthly unemployment
figures
6. the author states that the mitigating effect of social
programs involving income transfers on the income
level of low-income people is often not felt by
(a) the employed poor
(b) dependent children in single-earner families
(c) workers who become disabled
(d) retired workers
(e) full-time workers who become unemployed
7. according to the passage, one factor that causes
爑nemployment and earnings figures to overpredict
爐he amount of economic hardship is the
(a) recurrence of periods of unemployment for a
(b) possibility that earnings may be received from
牐 more than one job per worker
(c) fact that unemployment counts do not include
牐 those who work for low wages and remain poor
(d) establishment of a system of record-keeping that
牐 makes it possible to compile poverty statistics
(e) prevalence, among low-wage workers and the
牐 unemployed, of members of families in which
牐 others are employed
8. the conclusion stated in lines 33-39 about the
number of people who suffer as a result of forced
idleness depends primarily on the point that
(a) in times of high unemployment, there are some
牐 people who do not remain unemployed for long
(b) the capacity for self-support depends on
牐 receiving moderate-to-high wages
(c) those in forced idleness include, besides the
牐 unemployed, both underemployed part-time
牐 workers and those not actively seeking work
(d) at different times during the year, different people
牐 are unemployed
(e) many of those who are affected by unemploy-
牐 ment are dependents of unemployed workers
9. which of the following, if true, is the best criticism of
爐he author’s argument concerning why poverty
爏tatistics cannot properly be used to show the effects of
牐 problems in the labor market?
(a) a short-term increase in the number of those in
牐 poverty can indicate a shortage of jobs because the
牐 basic number of those unable to accept employment
牐 remains approximately constant.
(b) for those who are in poverty as a result of
牐 joblessness, there are social programs available
牐 that provide a minimum standard of living.
(c) poverty statistics do not consistently agree with
牐 earnings statistics, when each is taken as a
牐 measure of hardship resulting from unemployment.
(d) the elderly and handicapped categories include
牐 many who previ
牐 market.
(e) since the labor market is global in nature, poor
牐 workers in one country are competing with poor
牐 workers in another with respect to the level of
牐 wages and the existence of jobs.
passage 6
牐牐營n the eighteenth century, japan’s feudal
overlords, from the shogun to the humblest
samurai, found themselves under financial
stress. in part, this stress can be attributed to
(5) the overlords’ failure to adjust to a rapidly ex-
panding economy, but the stress was also due to factors
beyond the overlords’ control. concen-
tration of the samurai in castle-towns had acted
as a stimulus to trade. commercial efficiency, in
(10) turn, had put temptations in the way of buyers.
since most samurai had been reduced to idleness
by years of peace, encouraged to engage in
scholarship and martial exercises or to perform
administrative tasks that took little time, it is
(15) not surprising that their tastes and habits grew
expensive. overlords’ income, despite the in-
crease in rice production among their tenant
farmers, failed to keep pace with their expenses.
although shortfalls in overlords’ income re-
(20) sulted almost as much from laxity among their
tax collectors (the nearly inevitable outcome of
hereditary officeholding) as from their higher
standards of living, a misfortune like a fire or
flood, bringing an increase in expenses or a drop
(25) in revenue, could put a domain in debt to the
city rice-brokers who h
andled its finances. once
in debt, neither the individual samurai nor the
shogun himself found it easy to recover.
it was difficult for individual samurai over-
(30) lords to increase their income because the
amount of rice that farmers could be made to
pay in taxes was not unlimited, and since the in-
come of japan’s central government cons
part of taxes collected by the shogun from his
(35) huge domain, the government too was con-
strained. therefore, the tokugawa shoguns
began to look to other sources for revenue.
cash profits from government-owned mines
were already on the decline because the most
(40) easily worked deposits of silver and gold had
been exhausted, although debasement of the
coinage had compensated for the loss. opening
up new farmland was a possibility, but most of
what was suitable had already been exploited
(45) and further reclamation was technically unfeasi-
ble. direct taxation of the samurai themselves
would be politically dangerous. this left the
shoguns only commerce as a potential source of
government income.
(50) most of the country’s wealth, or so it seemed,
was finding its way into the hands of city mer-
chants. it appeared reasonable that they should
contribute part of that revenue to ease the
shogun’s burden of financing the state. a means
(55) of obtaining such revenue was soon found by
levying forced ioans, known as goyo-kin;
although these were not taxes in the strict sense,
since they were irregular in timing and arbitrary
in amount, they were high in yield. unfortunately,
(60) they pushed up prices. thus, regrettably, the
tokugawa shoguns’ search for solvency for the
government made it increasingly difficult for
individual japanese who lived on fixed stipends
to make ends meet.
1. the passage is most probably an excerpt from
(a) an economic history of japan (b) the memoirs of a samurai warrior
(c) a modern novel about eighteenth-century japan
(d) an essay contrasting japanese feudalism with its
牐牐燱estern counterpart
(e) an introduction to a collection of japanese folktales
2. which of the following financial situations is most
analogous to
0tokugawa shoguns found themselves in the eighteenth
century?
(a) a small business borrows heavily to invest in new
牐 equipment, but is able to pay off its debt early
牐 when it is awarded a lucrative government contract.
(b) fire destroys a small business, but insurance covers
牐 the cost of rebuilding.
(c) a small business is turned down for a loan at a
牐 local bank because the owners have no credit
牐 history?
(d) a small business has to struggle to meet operating
牐 expenses when its profits decrease.
(e) a small business is able to cut back sharply on
牐 spending through greater commercial efficiency
牐 and thereby compensate for a loss of revenue.
3. which of the following best describes the attitude of
the author toward the samurai discussed in lines
11-16?
(a) warmly approving
(b) mildly sympathetic
(c) bitterly disappointed
(d) harshly disdainful
(e) profoundly shocked
4. according to the passage, the major reason for the
爁inancial problems experienced by japan’s feudal
爋verlords in the eighteenth century was that
(a) spending had outdistanced income
(b) trade had fallen off
(c) profits from mining had declined
(d) the coinage had been sharply debased
(e) the samurai had concentrated in castle-towns
5.the passage implies that individual samurai did not
爁ind it easy to recover from debt for which of the
爁ollowing reasons?
(a) agricultural production had increased.
(b) taxes were irregular in timing and arbitrary in
牐 amount.
(c) the japanese government had failed to adjust to
牐牐爐he needs of a changing economy.
(d) the domains of samurai overlords were
牐牐燽ecoming smaller and poorer as government
牐牐爎evenues increased.
(e) there was a limit to the amount in taxes that
牐 farmers could be made to pa
6. the passage suggests that, in eighteenth-century
燡apan, the office of tax collector
(a) was a source of personal profit to the officeholder
(b) was regarded with derision by many japanese
(c) r
emained within families
(d) existed only in castle-towns
(e) took up most of the officeholder’s time
7. which of the following could best be substituted
爁or the word “this ” in line 47 without changing the
爉eaning of the passage?
(a) the search of japan’s tokugawa shoguns for
牐 solvency
(b) the importance of commerce in feudal japan
(c) the unfairness of the tax structure in eighteenth-
牐 century japan
(d) the difficulty of increasing government income by
牐牐爋ther means
(e) the difficulty experienced by both individual
牐 samurai and the shogun himself in extricating
牐 themselves from debt
8. the passage implies that which of the following was
the primary reason why the tokugawa shoguns
turned to city merchants for help in financing the
state?
(a) a series of costly wars had depleted the national
牐牐爐reasury.
(b) most of the country’s wealth appeared to be in
牐 city merchants’ hands.
(c) japan had suffered a series of economic
牐牐爎eversals due to natural disasters such as
牐牐爁loods.
(d) the merchants were already heavily indebted to
牐牐爐he shoguns.
(e) further reclamation of land would not have been
牐 economically advantageous.
9. according to the passage, the actions of the tokugawa
爏hoguns in their search for solvency for the government
爓ere regrettable because those actions
(a) raised the cost of living by pushing up prices
(b) resulted in the exhaustion of the most easily
牐 worked deposits of silver and gold
(c) were far lower in yield than had originally been
牐 anticipated
(d) did not succeed in reducing government spending
(e) acte