TEST12 CRITICAL REASONING 2_LSAT
section iv
time-35 minutes
24 questions
directions: the questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. for some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. however, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. you should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. after you have chosen the best answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
1. megatrash co., the country's largest waste-disposal company, has been sued by environmental groups who have accused the firm of negligent handling of hazardous waste. the fines and legal fees that have resulted from the legal attacks against megatrash have cost the company substantial amounts of money. surprisingly, as successful lawsuits against the company have increased in number, the company has grown stronger and more profitable.
which one of the following, if true, does the most to resolve the apparent paradox?
(a) although waste-disposal firms merely handle but do not generate toxic waste. these firms have been held legally responsible for environmental damage caused by this waste.
(b) megatrash has made substantial contributions to environmental causes. as have other large waste-disposal companies.
(c) some of the judgments against megatrash have legally barred it from entering the more profitable areas of the waste-management business.
(d) the example of megatrash's legal entanglements has driven most of the company's competitors from the field and deterred potential rivals from entering it.
(e) in cases in which megatrash has been acquitted of charges of negligence, the company has paid more in legal fees than it would have been likely to pay in fines.
2. lewis: those who do not learn from past mistakes—their own and those of others—are condemned to repeat them. in order to benefit from the lessons of history, however, we first have to know history. that is why the acquisition of broad historical knowledge is so important.
morris: the trouble is that the past is infinitely various. from its inexhaustible storehouse of events it is possible to prove anything or its contrary.
the issue that morris raises in objecting to lewis' view is whether
(a) there are any uncontested historical facts
(b) historical knowledge can be too narrow to be useful
(c) history teaches any unequivocal lessons
(d) there are conventional criteria for calling a past action a mistake
(e) events in the present are influenced by past events
3. a group of scientists who have done research on the health effects of food irradiation has discovered no evidence challenging its safety. supporters of food irradiation have cited this research as certain proof that food irradiation is a safe practice.
a flaw in the reasoning of the supporters of food irradiation is that they
(a) assume that the scientists doing the research set out to prove that food irradiation is an unsafe practice
(b) are motivated by a biased interest in proving the practice to be safe
(c) overlook the possibility that objections about safety are not the only possible objections to the practice
(d) neglect to provide detailed information about the evidence used to support the conclusion
(e) use the lack of evidence contradicting a claim as conclusive evidence for that claim.
4. cooking teacher. lima beans generally need about an hour of boiling to reach the proper degree of doneness. the precise amount of time it takes depends on size: larger beans squire a longer cooking time than smaller beans do. it is important that lima beans not be overcooked since overcooking robs beans of many of their nutrients. undercooking should also be avoided, since undercooked beans cannot be completely digested.
if the statements above are true, they most strongly support which one of the following?
(a) lima beans that are completely digestible have lost many of their nutrients in cooking.
(b) the nutrients that are lost when lima beans are overcooked are the same as those that the body fails to assimilate when lima beans are not completely digested.
(c) large lima beans, even when fully cooked, are more difficult to digest than small lima beans.
(d) lima beans that are added to the pot together should be as close to the same size as possible if they are to yield their full nutritional value.
(e) from the standpoint of good nutrition, it is better to overcook than to undercook lima beans.
question 5-6
large quantities of lead dust can be released during renovations in houses with walls painted with lead
-based paint. because the dust puts occupants at high risk of lead poisoning, such renovations should be done only in unoccupied houses by contractors who are experienced in removing all traces of lead from houses and who have the equipment to protect themselves from lead dust. even when warned. however. many people will not pay to have someone else do renovations they believe they could do less expensively themselves. therefore, homeowners' journal should run an article giving information to homeowners on how to reduce the risk of lead poisoning associated with do-it-yourself renovation.
5. which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly against the passage's recommendation about an article?
(a) most homeowners know whether or not the walls of their houses are painted with lead-based paint, even if the walls were painted by previous owners.
(b) most people who undertake do-it-yourself renovation projects do so for the satisfaction of doing the work themselves and so are unlikely to hire a professional to do that sort of work.
(c) whenever information on do-it-yourself home renovation is published. many people who would otherwise hire professionals decide to perform the renovations themselves, even when there are risks involved.
(d) in many areas. it is difficult to find professional renovators who have the equipment and qualifications to perform safely renovations involving lead dust.
(e) when professionally done home renovations are no more expensive than do-it-yourself renovations, most people choose to have their homes renovated by professionals.
6. which one of the following principles most helps to justify the passage's recommendation about an article?
(a) potentially dangerous jobs should always be left to those who have the training and experience to perform them safely, even if additional expense results.
(b) if people refuse to change their behavior even when warned that they are jeopardizing their health, information that enables them to minimize the risks of that behavior should be made available to them.
(c) a journal for homeowners should provide its readers with information on do-it-yourself projects only if such projects do not entail substantial risks.
(d) no one should be encouraged to perform a potentially dangerous procedure if doing so could place any other people at risk.
(e) people who are willing to do work themselves and who are competent to do so should not be discouraged from doing that work.
7. the scientific theory of evolution has challenged the view of human origin as divine creation and sees us as simply descended from the same ancestors as the apes. while science and technology have provided brilliant insights into our world and eased our everyday life. they have simultaneously deprived us of a view in which our importance is assured. thus, while science has given us many things, it has taken away much that is also greatly valued.
which one of the following is assumed in the passage?
(a) science and technology are of less value than religion.
(b) people have resisted the advances of science and technology.
(c) the assurance that people are important is highly valued.
(d) the world was a better place before the advent of science and technology.
(e) the need of people to feel important is now met by science and technology.
questions 8-9
that long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems including cancer and lung disease is a scientifically well-established fact. contrary to what many people seem to believe, however, it is not necessary to deny this fact in order to reject the view that tobacco companies should be held either morally or legally responsible for the poor health of smokers. after all, excessive consumption of candy undeniably leads to such health problems as tooth decay, but no one seriously believes that candy eaters who get cavities should be able to sue candy manufacturers.
8. the main point of the argument is that
(a) no one should feel it necessary to deny the scientifically we'll-established fact that long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems
(b) people who get cavities should not be able to sue candy manufacturers
(c) the fact that smokers' health problems can be mused by their smoking is not enough to justify holding tobacco companies either legally or morally responsible for those problems
(d) excessive consumption a(candy will lead to health problems just as surely as long-term cigarette smoking will
(e) if candy manufacturers were held responsible for tooth decay among candy eaters then tobacco companies should also be held responsible for health problems suffered by smokers
9. the reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
(a) fails to establish that the
connection between tooth decay and candy eating is as scientifically well documented as that between smoking and the health problems suffered by smokers
(b) depends on the obviously false assumption that everyone who gets cavities does so only as a result of eating too much candy
(c) leaves undefined such critical qualifying terms as "excessive" and "long-term"
(d) attributes certain beliefs to "many people" without identifying the people who allegedly hold those beliefs
(e) fails to address the striking differences in the nature of the threat to health posed by tooth decay on the one hand and cancer
10. lydia: each year, thousands of seabirds are injured when they become entangled in equipment owned by fishing companies. therefore, the fishing companies should assume responsibility for funding veterinary treatment for the injured birds.
jonathan: your feelings for the birds are admirable. your proposal, however, should not be adopted because treatment of the most seriously injured birds would inhumanely prolong the lives of animals no longer able to live in the wild, as all wildlife should.
jonathan uses which one of the following techniques in his response to lydia?
(a) he directs a personal attack against her rather than addressing the argument she advances.
(b) he suggests that her proposal is based on self-interest rather than on real sympathy for the injured birds.
(c) he questions the appropriateness of interfering with wildlife in any way, even if the goal of the interference is to help.
(d) he attempts to discredit her proposal by discussing its implications for only those birds that it serves least well.
(e) he evades discussion of her proposal by raising the issue of whether her feelings about the birds are justified.
11. logging industry official: harvesting trees from old-growth forests for use in manufacture can reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, since when large old trees die in the forest they decompose., releasing their stored carbon dioxide. harvesting old-growth forests would, moreover, make room for rapidly growing young trees, which absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than do trees in old-growth forests.
which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the official's argument?
(a) many old-growth forests are the home of thousands of animal species that would be endangered if the forests were to be destroyed.
(b) much of the organic matter from old-growth trees, unusable as lumber, is made into products that decompose rapidly.
(c) a young tree contains less than half the amount of carbon dioxide that is stored in an old tree of the same species.
(d) much of the carbon dioxide present in forests is eventually released when wood and other organic debris found on the forest floor decompose.
(e) it can take many years for the trees of a newly planted forest to reach the size of those found in existing old-growth forests.
12. a survey of a group of people between the ages of 75 and 80 found that those who regularly played the card game bridge tended to have better short-term memory than those who did not play bridge. it was originally concluded from this that playing bridge can help older people to retain and develop their memory. however, it may well be that bridge is simply a more enjoyable game for people who already have good short-term memory and who are thus more inclined to play.
in countering the original conclusion the reasoning above uses which one of the following techniques?
(a) challenging the representativeness of the sample surveyed
(b) conceding the suggested relationship between playing bridge and short-term memory, but questioning whether any conclusion about appropriate therapy can be drawn
(c) arguing that the original conclusion relied on an inaccurate understanding of the motives that the people surveyed have for playing bridge
(d) providing an alternative hypothesis to explain the data on which the original conclusion was based
(e) describing a flaw in the reasoning on which the original conclusion was based .
13. there are tests to detect some of the rare genetic flaws that increase the likelihood of certain diseases. if these tests are performed, then a person with a rare genetic flaw that is detected can receive the appropriate preventive treatment. since it costs the health-care system less to prevent a disease than to treat it after it has occurred, widespread genetic screening will reduce the overall cost of health care.
the argument assumes which one of the following?
(a) the cost of treating patients who would. in the absence of screening, develop diseases that are linked to rare genetic flaws would be more than the combined costs of widespread screening and preventive treatment.
(b) m
ost diseases linked to rare genetic flaws are preventable.
(c) the resources allocated by hospitals to the treatment of persons with diseases linked to genetic flaws will increase once screening is widely available.
(d) even if the genetic tests are performed, many people whose rare genetic flaws are detected will develop diseases linked to the flaws as a consequence of not receiving the appropriate preventive treatment.
(e) if preventive treatment is given to patients with rare genetic flaws, additional funds will be available for treating the more common diseases.
14. in the l960s paranoia was viewed by social scientists as ungrounded fear of powerlessness. and the theme of paranoia as it relates to feelings of powerlessness was dominant in films of that period. in the 1970s paranoia instead was viewed by social scientists as a response to real threats from society. films of this period portray paranoia as a legitimate response to a world gone mad.
which one of the following is a conclusion that the statements above if true, most strongly support?
(a) images of paranoia presented in films made in a period reflect trends in social science of that period.
(b) responses to real threats can and often do, degenerate into groundless fears.
(c) the world is becoming more and more threatening
(d) paranoia is a condition that keeps changing along with changes in society.
(e) the shift in perception by social scientists from the 1960s to the 1970s resulted from an inability to find a successful cure for paranoia.
15. a certain experimental fungicide causes no harm to garden plants, though only if it is diluted at least to ten parts water to one part fungicide. moreover, this fungicide is known to be so effective against powdery mildew that it has the capacity to eliminate it completely from rose plants. thus this fungicide, as long as it is sufficiently diluted, provides a means of eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants that involves no risk of harming the plants.
which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
(a) there is not an alternative method, besides application of this fungicide. for eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants without harming the plants.
(b) when the fungicide is sufficiently diluted. it does not present any risk of harm to people, animals. or beneficial insects.
(c) powdery mildew is the only fungal infection that affects rose plants.
(d) if a fungicide is to be effective against powdery mildew on rose plants, it must eliminate the powdery mildew completely.
(e) the effectiveness of the fungicide does not depend on its being more concentrated than one part in ten parts of water.
16.when glass products are made from recycled glass, the resulting products can be equal in quality to glass products made from quartz sand, the usual raw material. when plastics are recycled, however, the result is inevitably a plastic of a lower grade than the plastic from which it is derived. moreover, no applications have been found for grades of plastic that are lower than the currently lowest commercial grade.
which one of the following is a conclusion that can be properly drawn from the statements above?
(a) products cannot presently be made out of plastic recycled entirely from the currently lowest commercial grade.
(b) it is impossible to make glass products from recycled glass that are equal in quality to the best glass products made from the usual raw material.
(c) glass products made from recycled glass are less expensive than comparable products made from quartz sand.
(d) unless recycled plastic bears some symbol revealing its origin, not even materials scientists can distinguish it from virgin plastic.
(e) the difference in quality between different grades of glass is not as great as that between different grades of plastic.
question 17-18
teacher: journalists who conceal the identity of the sources they quote stake their professional reputations on what may be called the logic of anecdotes. this is so because the statements reported by such journalists are dissociated from the precise circumstances in which they were made and thus will be accepted for publication only if the statements are high in plausibility or originality or interest to a given audience – precisely the properties of a good anecdote.
student: but what you are saying, then, is that the journalist need not bother with sources in the first place. surely, any reasonably resourceful journalist can invent plausible, original. or interesting stories faster than they can be obtained from unidentified sources.
17. the student's response contains which one of the following reasoning flaws?
(a) confusing a marginal journalistic practice with the primary work done by journalists
(b) ignoring the possibility that the teacher regards as a prerequisite for the publication of an unattributed statement that the statement have actually been made
(c) confusing the characteristics of reported statements with the characteristics of the situations in which the statements were made
(d) judging the merits of the teacher's position solely by the most extreme case to which the position applies
(e) falsely concluding that if three criteria, met jointly, assure an outcome, then each criterion, met individually, also assures that outcome
18. which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the teacher's argument?
(a) a journalist undermines his or her own professional standing by submitting for publication statements that, not being attributed to a named source, are rejected for being implausible, unoriginal, or dull.
(b) statements that are attributed to a fully identified source make up the majority of reported statements included by journalists
in stories submitted for publication.
(c) reported statements that are highly original will often seem implausible unless submitted by a journalist who is known for solid, reliable work.
(d) reputable journalists sometimes do not conceal the identity of their sources from their publishers but insist that the identity of those sources be concealed from the public.
(e) journalists who have special access to sources whose identity they must conceal are greatly valued by their publishers.
19. the proposal to extend clinical trials, which are routinely used as systematic tests of pharmaceutical innovations, to new surgical procedures should not be implemented. the point is that surgical procedures differ in one important respect from medicinal drugs: a correctly prescribed drug depends for its effectiveness only on the drug's composition, whereas the effectiveness of even the most appropriate surgical procedure is transparently related to the skills of the surgeon who uses it.
the reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument
(a) does not consider that new surgical procedures might be found to be intrinsically more harmful than the best treatment previously available
(b) ignores the possibility that the challenged proposal is deliberately crude in a way designed to elicit criticism to be used in relining the proposal
(c) assumes that a surgeon's skills remain unchanged throughout the surgeon's professional life
(d) describes a dissimilarity without citing any scientific evidence for the existence of that dissimilarity
(e) rejects a proposal presumably advanced in good faith without acknowledging any such good faith .
20. if the majority of the residents of the apartment complex complain that their apartments are infested with ants, then the management of the complex will have to engage the services of an exterminator. but the majority of the residents of the complex indicate that their apartments are virtually free of ants. therefore. the management of the complex will not have to engage the services of an exterminator.
which one of the following arguments contains a flawed pattern of reasoning parallel to that contained in the argument above?
(a) a theater will be constructed in the fall if funds collected are at least sufficient to cover its cost. to date. the funds collected exceed the theater's cost. so the theater will be constructed in the fall.
(b) the number of flights operated by the airlines cannot be reduced unless the airlines can collect higher airfares. but people will not pay higher airfares. so it is not the case that the number of flights will be reduced.
(c) in order for the company to start the proposed building project. both the town council and the mayor must approve. since the mayor has already approved, the building project will be started soon.
(d) most employees will attend the company picnic if the entertainment committee is successful in getting a certain band to play at the picnic. but that band will be out of the country on the day of the picnic, so it is not true that most employees will attend.
(e) either the school's principal or two-thirds of the parent council must approve a change in the school dress code in order for the code to be chanced. since the principal will not approve a change in the dress code. the code will not be chanced.
21. when the supply of a given resource dwindles, alternative technologies allowing the use of different resources develop, and demand for the resource that was in short supply naturally declines. then the existing supplies of that resource satisfy whatever demand remains. among the once-dwindling resources that are now in more than adequate supply are flint for arrowheads, trees usable for schooner masts, and good mules. because new technologies constantly replace old on
es, we can never run out of important natural resources.
which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion?
(a) the masts and hulls of some sailing ships built today are still made of wood.
(b) there are considerably fewer mules today than there were 100 years ago.
(c) the cost of some new technologies is often so high that the companies developing them might actually lose money at first.
(d) dwindling supplies of a natural resource often result in that resource's costing more to use.
(e) the biological requirements for substances like clean air and clean water are unaffected by technological change.
22. paulsville and longtown cannot both be included in the candidate's itinerary of campaign stops. the candidate will make a stop in paulsville unless salisbury is made part of the itinerary. unfortunately, a stop in salisbury is out of the question. clearly, then, a stop in longtown can be ruled out.
the reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following arguments?
(a) the chef never has both fresh radishes and fresh green peppers available for the chief’s salad at the same time. if she uses fresh radishes, she also uses spinach. but currently there is no spinach to be had. it can be inferred, then, that she will not be using fresh green peppers.
(b) tom will definitely support parker if mendoza does not apply: and tom will not support both parker and chung. since, as it turns out, mendoza will not apply. it follows that chung will not get tom's support.
(c) the program committee never selects two plays by shaw for a single season. but when they select a play by coward, they do not select any play by shaw at all. for this season, the committee has just selected a play by shaw, so they will not select any play by coward.
(d) in agricultural pest control, either pesticides or the introduction of natural enemies of the pest. but not both, will work. of course, neither will be needed if pest-resistant crops are planted. so if pesticides are in tact needed. it must be that here are no natural enemies of the pest.
(e) the city cannot afford to build both a new stadium and the new road that would be needed to get there. but neither of the two projects is worth doing without the other. since the city will not undertake any but worthwhile projects, the new stadium will not be constructed at this time.
23. a study of adults who suffer from migraine headaches revealed that a significant proportion of the study participants suffer from a complex syndrome characterized by a set of three symptoms. those who suffer from the syndrome experienced excessive anxiety during early childhood. as adolescents, these people began experiencing migraine headaches. as these people approached the age of 20, they also began to experience recurring bouts of depression. since this pattern is invariant always with excessive anxiety at its beginning, it follows .hat excessive anxiety in childhood is one of the causes of migraine headaches and depression in later life.
the reasoning m the argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds'?
(a) it does not specify the proportion of those in the general population who suffer from the syndrome.
(8) it fails to rule out the possibility that ail of the characteristic symptoms of the syndrome have a common cause.
(c) it makes a generalization that is inconsistent with the evidence.
(d) it fails to demonstrate that the people who participated in the study are representative of migraine sufferers.
(e) it does not establish why the study of migraine sufferers was restricted to adult participants.
24. mainstream economic theory holds that manufacturers. in deciding what kinds of products to manufacture and what form those products should have, simply respond to the needs and desires of consumers. however, most major manufacturers manipulate and even create consumer demand. as anyone who watches television knows. since even mainstream economic theorists watch television, their motive in advancing this theory must be something other than disinterested concern for scientific truth.
the claim that manufacturers manipulate and create consumer demand plays which one of the following roles in the argument?
(a) it is one of the claims on which the conclusion is based.
(b) it is the conclusion of the argument.
(c) it states the position argued against.
(d) it states a possible objection to the argument's conclusion.
(e) it provides supplementary background information.
time-35 minutes
24 questions
directions: the questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. for some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. however, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. you should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. after you have chosen the best answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
1. megatrash co., the country's largest waste-disposal company, has been sued by environmental groups who have accused the firm of negligent handling of hazardous waste. the fines and legal fees that have resulted from the legal attacks against megatrash have cost the company substantial amounts of money. surprisingly, as successful lawsuits against the company have increased in number, the company has grown stronger and more profitable.
which one of the following, if true, does the most to resolve the apparent paradox?
(a) although waste-disposal firms merely handle but do not generate toxic waste. these firms have been held legally responsible for environmental damage caused by this waste.
(b) megatrash has made substantial contributions to environmental causes. as have other large waste-disposal companies.
(c) some of the judgments against megatrash have legally barred it from entering the more profitable areas of the waste-management business.
(d) the example of megatrash's legal entanglements has driven most of the company's competitors from the field and deterred potential rivals from entering it.
(e) in cases in which megatrash has been acquitted of charges of negligence, the company has paid more in legal fees than it would have been likely to pay in fines.
2. lewis: those who do not learn from past mistakes—their own and those of others—are condemned to repeat them. in order to benefit from the lessons of history, however, we first have to know history. that is why the acquisition of broad historical knowledge is so important.
morris: the trouble is that the past is infinitely various. from its inexhaustible storehouse of events it is possible to prove anything or its contrary.
the issue that morris raises in objecting to lewis' view is whether
(a) there are any uncontested historical facts
(b) historical knowledge can be too narrow to be useful
(c) history teaches any unequivocal lessons
(d) there are conventional criteria for calling a past action a mistake
(e) events in the present are influenced by past events
3. a group of scientists who have done research on the health effects of food irradiation has discovered no evidence challenging its safety. supporters of food irradiation have cited this research as certain proof that food irradiation is a safe practice.
a flaw in the reasoning of the supporters of food irradiation is that they
(a) assume that the scientists doing the research set out to prove that food irradiation is an unsafe practice
(b) are motivated by a biased interest in proving the practice to be safe
(c) overlook the possibility that objections about safety are not the only possible objections to the practice
(d) neglect to provide detailed information about the evidence used to support the conclusion
(e) use the lack of evidence contradicting a claim as conclusive evidence for that claim.
4. cooking teacher. lima beans generally need about an hour of boiling to reach the proper degree of doneness. the precise amount of time it takes depends on size: larger beans squire a longer cooking time than smaller beans do. it is important that lima beans not be overcooked since overcooking robs beans of many of their nutrients. undercooking should also be avoided, since undercooked beans cannot be completely digested.
if the statements above are true, they most strongly support which one of the following?
(a) lima beans that are completely digestible have lost many of their nutrients in cooking.
(b) the nutrients that are lost when lima beans are overcooked are the same as those that the body fails to assimilate when lima beans are not completely digested.
(c) large lima beans, even when fully cooked, are more difficult to digest than small lima beans.
(d) lima beans that are added to the pot together should be as close to the same size as possible if they are to yield their full nutritional value.
(e) from the standpoint of good nutrition, it is better to overcook than to undercook lima beans.
question 5-6
large quantities of lead dust can be released during renovations in houses with walls painted with lead
-based paint. because the dust puts occupants at high risk of lead poisoning, such renovations should be done only in unoccupied houses by contractors who are experienced in removing all traces of lead from houses and who have the equipment to protect themselves from lead dust. even when warned. however. many people will not pay to have someone else do renovations they believe they could do less expensively themselves. therefore, homeowners' journal should run an article giving information to homeowners on how to reduce the risk of lead poisoning associated with do-it-yourself renovation.
5. which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly against the passage's recommendation about an article?
(a) most homeowners know whether or not the walls of their houses are painted with lead-based paint, even if the walls were painted by previous owners.
(b) most people who undertake do-it-yourself renovation projects do so for the satisfaction of doing the work themselves and so are unlikely to hire a professional to do that sort of work.
(c) whenever information on do-it-yourself home renovation is published. many people who would otherwise hire professionals decide to perform the renovations themselves, even when there are risks involved.
(d) in many areas. it is difficult to find professional renovators who have the equipment and qualifications to perform safely renovations involving lead dust.
(e) when professionally done home renovations are no more expensive than do-it-yourself renovations, most people choose to have their homes renovated by professionals.
6. which one of the following principles most helps to justify the passage's recommendation about an article?
(a) potentially dangerous jobs should always be left to those who have the training and experience to perform them safely, even if additional expense results.
(b) if people refuse to change their behavior even when warned that they are jeopardizing their health, information that enables them to minimize the risks of that behavior should be made available to them.
(c) a journal for homeowners should provide its readers with information on do-it-yourself projects only if such projects do not entail substantial risks.
(d) no one should be encouraged to perform a potentially dangerous procedure if doing so could place any other people at risk.
(e) people who are willing to do work themselves and who are competent to do so should not be discouraged from doing that work.
7. the scientific theory of evolution has challenged the view of human origin as divine creation and sees us as simply descended from the same ancestors as the apes. while science and technology have provided brilliant insights into our world and eased our everyday life. they have simultaneously deprived us of a view in which our importance is assured. thus, while science has given us many things, it has taken away much that is also greatly valued.
which one of the following is assumed in the passage?
(a) science and technology are of less value than religion.
(b) people have resisted the advances of science and technology.
(c) the assurance that people are important is highly valued.
(d) the world was a better place before the advent of science and technology.
(e) the need of people to feel important is now met by science and technology.
questions 8-9
that long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems including cancer and lung disease is a scientifically well-established fact. contrary to what many people seem to believe, however, it is not necessary to deny this fact in order to reject the view that tobacco companies should be held either morally or legally responsible for the poor health of smokers. after all, excessive consumption of candy undeniably leads to such health problems as tooth decay, but no one seriously believes that candy eaters who get cavities should be able to sue candy manufacturers.
8. the main point of the argument is that
(a) no one should feel it necessary to deny the scientifically we'll-established fact that long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems
(b) people who get cavities should not be able to sue candy manufacturers
(c) the fact that smokers' health problems can be mused by their smoking is not enough to justify holding tobacco companies either legally or morally responsible for those problems
(d) excessive consumption a(candy will lead to health problems just as surely as long-term cigarette smoking will
(e) if candy manufacturers were held responsible for tooth decay among candy eaters then tobacco companies should also be held responsible for health problems suffered by smokers
9. the reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
(a) fails to establish that the
connection between tooth decay and candy eating is as scientifically well documented as that between smoking and the health problems suffered by smokers
(b) depends on the obviously false assumption that everyone who gets cavities does so only as a result of eating too much candy
(c) leaves undefined such critical qualifying terms as "excessive" and "long-term"
(d) attributes certain beliefs to "many people" without identifying the people who allegedly hold those beliefs
(e) fails to address the striking differences in the nature of the threat to health posed by tooth decay on the one hand and cancer
10. lydia: each year, thousands of seabirds are injured when they become entangled in equipment owned by fishing companies. therefore, the fishing companies should assume responsibility for funding veterinary treatment for the injured birds.
jonathan: your feelings for the birds are admirable. your proposal, however, should not be adopted because treatment of the most seriously injured birds would inhumanely prolong the lives of animals no longer able to live in the wild, as all wildlife should.
jonathan uses which one of the following techniques in his response to lydia?
(a) he directs a personal attack against her rather than addressing the argument she advances.
(b) he suggests that her proposal is based on self-interest rather than on real sympathy for the injured birds.
(c) he questions the appropriateness of interfering with wildlife in any way, even if the goal of the interference is to help.
(d) he attempts to discredit her proposal by discussing its implications for only those birds that it serves least well.
(e) he evades discussion of her proposal by raising the issue of whether her feelings about the birds are justified.
11. logging industry official: harvesting trees from old-growth forests for use in manufacture can reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, since when large old trees die in the forest they decompose., releasing their stored carbon dioxide. harvesting old-growth forests would, moreover, make room for rapidly growing young trees, which absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than do trees in old-growth forests.
which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the official's argument?
(a) many old-growth forests are the home of thousands of animal species that would be endangered if the forests were to be destroyed.
(b) much of the organic matter from old-growth trees, unusable as lumber, is made into products that decompose rapidly.
(c) a young tree contains less than half the amount of carbon dioxide that is stored in an old tree of the same species.
(d) much of the carbon dioxide present in forests is eventually released when wood and other organic debris found on the forest floor decompose.
(e) it can take many years for the trees of a newly planted forest to reach the size of those found in existing old-growth forests.
12. a survey of a group of people between the ages of 75 and 80 found that those who regularly played the card game bridge tended to have better short-term memory than those who did not play bridge. it was originally concluded from this that playing bridge can help older people to retain and develop their memory. however, it may well be that bridge is simply a more enjoyable game for people who already have good short-term memory and who are thus more inclined to play.
in countering the original conclusion the reasoning above uses which one of the following techniques?
(a) challenging the representativeness of the sample surveyed
(b) conceding the suggested relationship between playing bridge and short-term memory, but questioning whether any conclusion about appropriate therapy can be drawn
(c) arguing that the original conclusion relied on an inaccurate understanding of the motives that the people surveyed have for playing bridge
(d) providing an alternative hypothesis to explain the data on which the original conclusion was based
(e) describing a flaw in the reasoning on which the original conclusion was based .
13. there are tests to detect some of the rare genetic flaws that increase the likelihood of certain diseases. if these tests are performed, then a person with a rare genetic flaw that is detected can receive the appropriate preventive treatment. since it costs the health-care system less to prevent a disease than to treat it after it has occurred, widespread genetic screening will reduce the overall cost of health care.
the argument assumes which one of the following?
(a) the cost of treating patients who would. in the absence of screening, develop diseases that are linked to rare genetic flaws would be more than the combined costs of widespread screening and preventive treatment.
(b) m
ost diseases linked to rare genetic flaws are preventable.
(c) the resources allocated by hospitals to the treatment of persons with diseases linked to genetic flaws will increase once screening is widely available.
(d) even if the genetic tests are performed, many people whose rare genetic flaws are detected will develop diseases linked to the flaws as a consequence of not receiving the appropriate preventive treatment.
(e) if preventive treatment is given to patients with rare genetic flaws, additional funds will be available for treating the more common diseases.
14. in the l960s paranoia was viewed by social scientists as ungrounded fear of powerlessness. and the theme of paranoia as it relates to feelings of powerlessness was dominant in films of that period. in the 1970s paranoia instead was viewed by social scientists as a response to real threats from society. films of this period portray paranoia as a legitimate response to a world gone mad.
which one of the following is a conclusion that the statements above if true, most strongly support?
(a) images of paranoia presented in films made in a period reflect trends in social science of that period.
(b) responses to real threats can and often do, degenerate into groundless fears.
(c) the world is becoming more and more threatening
(d) paranoia is a condition that keeps changing along with changes in society.
(e) the shift in perception by social scientists from the 1960s to the 1970s resulted from an inability to find a successful cure for paranoia.
15. a certain experimental fungicide causes no harm to garden plants, though only if it is diluted at least to ten parts water to one part fungicide. moreover, this fungicide is known to be so effective against powdery mildew that it has the capacity to eliminate it completely from rose plants. thus this fungicide, as long as it is sufficiently diluted, provides a means of eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants that involves no risk of harming the plants.
which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
(a) there is not an alternative method, besides application of this fungicide. for eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants without harming the plants.
(b) when the fungicide is sufficiently diluted. it does not present any risk of harm to people, animals. or beneficial insects.
(c) powdery mildew is the only fungal infection that affects rose plants.
(d) if a fungicide is to be effective against powdery mildew on rose plants, it must eliminate the powdery mildew completely.
(e) the effectiveness of the fungicide does not depend on its being more concentrated than one part in ten parts of water.
16.when glass products are made from recycled glass, the resulting products can be equal in quality to glass products made from quartz sand, the usual raw material. when plastics are recycled, however, the result is inevitably a plastic of a lower grade than the plastic from which it is derived. moreover, no applications have been found for grades of plastic that are lower than the currently lowest commercial grade.
which one of the following is a conclusion that can be properly drawn from the statements above?
(a) products cannot presently be made out of plastic recycled entirely from the currently lowest commercial grade.
(b) it is impossible to make glass products from recycled glass that are equal in quality to the best glass products made from the usual raw material.
(c) glass products made from recycled glass are less expensive than comparable products made from quartz sand.
(d) unless recycled plastic bears some symbol revealing its origin, not even materials scientists can distinguish it from virgin plastic.
(e) the difference in quality between different grades of glass is not as great as that between different grades of plastic.
question 17-18
teacher: journalists who conceal the identity of the sources they quote stake their professional reputations on what may be called the logic of anecdotes. this is so because the statements reported by such journalists are dissociated from the precise circumstances in which they were made and thus will be accepted for publication only if the statements are high in plausibility or originality or interest to a given audience – precisely the properties of a good anecdote.
student: but what you are saying, then, is that the journalist need not bother with sources in the first place. surely, any reasonably resourceful journalist can invent plausible, original. or interesting stories faster than they can be obtained from unidentified sources.
17. the student's response contains which one of the following reasoning flaws?
(a) confusing a marginal journalistic practice with the primary work done by journalists
(b) ignoring the possibility that the teacher regards as a prerequisite for the publication of an unattributed statement that the statement have actually been made
(c) confusing the characteristics of reported statements with the characteristics of the situations in which the statements were made
(d) judging the merits of the teacher's position solely by the most extreme case to which the position applies
(e) falsely concluding that if three criteria, met jointly, assure an outcome, then each criterion, met individually, also assures that outcome
18. which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the teacher's argument?
(a) a journalist undermines his or her own professional standing by submitting for publication statements that, not being attributed to a named source, are rejected for being implausible, unoriginal, or dull.
(b) statements that are attributed to a fully identified source make up the majority of reported statements included by journalists
in stories submitted for publication.
(c) reported statements that are highly original will often seem implausible unless submitted by a journalist who is known for solid, reliable work.
(d) reputable journalists sometimes do not conceal the identity of their sources from their publishers but insist that the identity of those sources be concealed from the public.
(e) journalists who have special access to sources whose identity they must conceal are greatly valued by their publishers.
19. the proposal to extend clinical trials, which are routinely used as systematic tests of pharmaceutical innovations, to new surgical procedures should not be implemented. the point is that surgical procedures differ in one important respect from medicinal drugs: a correctly prescribed drug depends for its effectiveness only on the drug's composition, whereas the effectiveness of even the most appropriate surgical procedure is transparently related to the skills of the surgeon who uses it.
the reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument
(a) does not consider that new surgical procedures might be found to be intrinsically more harmful than the best treatment previously available
(b) ignores the possibility that the challenged proposal is deliberately crude in a way designed to elicit criticism to be used in relining the proposal
(c) assumes that a surgeon's skills remain unchanged throughout the surgeon's professional life
(d) describes a dissimilarity without citing any scientific evidence for the existence of that dissimilarity
(e) rejects a proposal presumably advanced in good faith without acknowledging any such good faith .
20. if the majority of the residents of the apartment complex complain that their apartments are infested with ants, then the management of the complex will have to engage the services of an exterminator. but the majority of the residents of the complex indicate that their apartments are virtually free of ants. therefore. the management of the complex will not have to engage the services of an exterminator.
which one of the following arguments contains a flawed pattern of reasoning parallel to that contained in the argument above?
(a) a theater will be constructed in the fall if funds collected are at least sufficient to cover its cost. to date. the funds collected exceed the theater's cost. so the theater will be constructed in the fall.
(b) the number of flights operated by the airlines cannot be reduced unless the airlines can collect higher airfares. but people will not pay higher airfares. so it is not the case that the number of flights will be reduced.
(c) in order for the company to start the proposed building project. both the town council and the mayor must approve. since the mayor has already approved, the building project will be started soon.
(d) most employees will attend the company picnic if the entertainment committee is successful in getting a certain band to play at the picnic. but that band will be out of the country on the day of the picnic, so it is not true that most employees will attend.
(e) either the school's principal or two-thirds of the parent council must approve a change in the school dress code in order for the code to be chanced. since the principal will not approve a change in the dress code. the code will not be chanced.
21. when the supply of a given resource dwindles, alternative technologies allowing the use of different resources develop, and demand for the resource that was in short supply naturally declines. then the existing supplies of that resource satisfy whatever demand remains. among the once-dwindling resources that are now in more than adequate supply are flint for arrowheads, trees usable for schooner masts, and good mules. because new technologies constantly replace old on
es, we can never run out of important natural resources.
which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion?
(a) the masts and hulls of some sailing ships built today are still made of wood.
(b) there are considerably fewer mules today than there were 100 years ago.
(c) the cost of some new technologies is often so high that the companies developing them might actually lose money at first.
(d) dwindling supplies of a natural resource often result in that resource's costing more to use.
(e) the biological requirements for substances like clean air and clean water are unaffected by technological change.
22. paulsville and longtown cannot both be included in the candidate's itinerary of campaign stops. the candidate will make a stop in paulsville unless salisbury is made part of the itinerary. unfortunately, a stop in salisbury is out of the question. clearly, then, a stop in longtown can be ruled out.
the reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following arguments?
(a) the chef never has both fresh radishes and fresh green peppers available for the chief’s salad at the same time. if she uses fresh radishes, she also uses spinach. but currently there is no spinach to be had. it can be inferred, then, that she will not be using fresh green peppers.
(b) tom will definitely support parker if mendoza does not apply: and tom will not support both parker and chung. since, as it turns out, mendoza will not apply. it follows that chung will not get tom's support.
(c) the program committee never selects two plays by shaw for a single season. but when they select a play by coward, they do not select any play by shaw at all. for this season, the committee has just selected a play by shaw, so they will not select any play by coward.
(d) in agricultural pest control, either pesticides or the introduction of natural enemies of the pest. but not both, will work. of course, neither will be needed if pest-resistant crops are planted. so if pesticides are in tact needed. it must be that here are no natural enemies of the pest.
(e) the city cannot afford to build both a new stadium and the new road that would be needed to get there. but neither of the two projects is worth doing without the other. since the city will not undertake any but worthwhile projects, the new stadium will not be constructed at this time.
23. a study of adults who suffer from migraine headaches revealed that a significant proportion of the study participants suffer from a complex syndrome characterized by a set of three symptoms. those who suffer from the syndrome experienced excessive anxiety during early childhood. as adolescents, these people began experiencing migraine headaches. as these people approached the age of 20, they also began to experience recurring bouts of depression. since this pattern is invariant always with excessive anxiety at its beginning, it follows .hat excessive anxiety in childhood is one of the causes of migraine headaches and depression in later life.
the reasoning m the argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds'?
(a) it does not specify the proportion of those in the general population who suffer from the syndrome.
(8) it fails to rule out the possibility that ail of the characteristic symptoms of the syndrome have a common cause.
(c) it makes a generalization that is inconsistent with the evidence.
(d) it fails to demonstrate that the people who participated in the study are representative of migraine sufferers.
(e) it does not establish why the study of migraine sufferers was restricted to adult participants.
24. mainstream economic theory holds that manufacturers. in deciding what kinds of products to manufacture and what form those products should have, simply respond to the needs and desires of consumers. however, most major manufacturers manipulate and even create consumer demand. as anyone who watches television knows. since even mainstream economic theorists watch television, their motive in advancing this theory must be something other than disinterested concern for scientific truth.
the claim that manufacturers manipulate and create consumer demand plays which one of the following roles in the argument?
(a) it is one of the claims on which the conclusion is based.
(b) it is the conclusion of the argument.
(c) it states the position argued against.
(d) it states a possible objection to the argument's conclusion.
(e) it provides supplementary background information.